Oceanography The Official Magazine of
The Oceanography Society
Jump to
Article Abstract Citation References Copyright & Usage
Article Abstract

Coral reefs are one of the world’s most biologically diverse and productive ecosystems. However, these valuable resources are highly threatened by human activities. Satellite remotely sensed observations enhance our understanding of coral reefs and some of the threats facing them by providing global spatial and time-series data on reef habitats and the environmental conditions influencing them in near-real time. This review highlights many of the ways in which satellites are currently used to monitor coral reefs and their threats, and provides a look toward future needs and capabilities.

Citation

Eakin, C.M., C.J. Nim, R.E. Brainard, C. Aubrecht, C. Elvidge, D.K. Gledhill, F. Muller-Karger, P.J. Mumby, W.J. Skirving, A.E. Strong, M. Wang, S. Weeks, F. Wentz, and D. Ziskin. 2010. Monitoring coral reefs from space. Oceanography 23(4):118–133, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2010.10.

References
    Adey, W.H., T.A. McConnaughey, A.M. Small, and D.M. Spoon. 2000. Coral reefs: Endangered, biodiverse, genetic resources. Pp. 33–42 in Seas at the Millennium. C.R.C. Sheppard, ed., Elsevier.
  1. Andréfouët, S. 2008. Coral reef habitat mapping using remote sensing: A user vs producer perspective: Implications for research, management and capacity building. Spatial Science 53(1):113–129.
  2. Andréfouët, S. In press. Remote sensing. Chapter in Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs: Structure, Form and Process. D. Hopley, ed., Springer-Verlag.
  3. Andréfouët, S., and H.M. Guzman. 2005. Coral reef distribution, status and geomorphology: Biodiversity relationship in Kuna Yala (San Blas) archipelago, Caribbean Panama. Coral Reefs 24(1):31–42.
  4. Andréfouët, S., R. Berkelmans, L. Odriozola, T. Done, J. Oliver, and F. Muller-Karger. 2002. Choosing the appropriate spatial resolution for monitoring coral bleaching events using remote sensing. Coral Reefs 21(2):147–154.
  5. Andréfouët, S., P. Kramer, D. Torres-Pulliza, K.E. Joyce, E.J. Hochberg, R. Garza-Perez, P.J. Mumby, B. Riegl, H. Yamano, W.H. White, and others. 2003. Multi-site evaluation of IKONOS data for classification of tropical coral reef environments. Remote Sensing of Environment 88(1–2):128–143.
  6. Andréfouët, S., F.E. Muller-Karger, J.A. Robinson, C.J. Kranenburg, D. Torres-Pulliza, S.A. Spraggins, and B. Murch. 2006. Global assessment of modern coral reef extent and diversity for regional science and management applications: A view from space. Pp. 1,732–1,745 in Proceedings of 10th International Coral Reef Symposium. Okinawa, Japan, June 28–July 2, 2004, Japanese Coral Reef Society, Tokyo, Japan. Available online at: http://www.reefbase.org/resource_center/publication/icrs.aspx?icrs=ICRS10 (accessed September 22, 2010).
  7. Aubrecht, C., C.D. Elvidge, T. Longcore, C. Rich, J. Safran, A.E. Strong, C.M. Eakin, K.E. Baugh, B.T. Tuttle, A.T. Howard, and E.H. Erwin. 2008. A global inventory of coral reef stressors based on satellite observed nighttime lights. Geocarto International 23(6):467–479. [CrossRef]
  8. Bertels, L., T. Vanderstraete, S. Van Coillie, E. Knaeps, S. Sterckx, R. Goossens, and B. Deronde. 2008. Mapping of coral reefs using hyperspectral CASI data: A case study: Fordata, Tanimbar, Indonesia. International Journal of Remote Sensing 29(8):2,359–2,391.
  9. Brock, J.C., C.W. Wright, I.B. Kuffner, R. Hernandez, and P. Thompson. 2006. Airborne lidar sensing of massive stony coral colonies on patch reefs in the northern Florida reef tract. Remote Sensing of Environment 104:31–42. [CrossRef]
  10. Brodie, J., K. Fabricius, G. De’ath, and K. Okaji. 2005. Are increased nutrient inputs responsible for more outbreaks of Crown of Thorns starfish? An appraisal of the evidence. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51:266–278. [CrossRef]
  11. Bruno, J.F., E.R. Selig, K.S. Casey, C.A. Page, B.L. Willis, C.D. Harvell, H. Sweatman, and A.M. Melendy. 2007. Thermal stress and coral cover as drivers of coral disease outbreaks. PLoS Biology 5(6):e124. [CrossRef]
  12. Burke, L., and J. Maidens. 2004. Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC, 80 pp. Available online at: http://www.wri.org/publication/reefs-risk-caribbean (accessed September 22, 2010).
  13. Caldeira, K., and M.E. Wickett. 2003. Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH. Nature 425:365. [CrossRef]
  14. Dalleau, M., S. Andréfouët, C.C. Wabnitz, C. Payri, L. Wantiez, M. Pichon, K. Friedman, L. Vigliola, and F. Benzoni. 2010. Use of habitats as surrogates of biodiversity for efficient coral reef conservation planning in Pacific Ocean islands. Conservation Biology 24(2):541–552. [CrossRef]
  15. Dodge, R.E., C. Birkeland, M. Hatziolos, J.A. Kleypas, S.R. Palumbi, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, R. Van Woesik, J.C. Ogden, R.B. Aronson, B.D. Causey, and F. Staub. 2008. A call to action for coral reefs. Science 322:189–190. [CrossRef]
  16. Doney, S.C., V.J. Fabry, R.A. Feely, and J.A. Kleypas. 2009. Ocean acidification: The other CO2 problem. Annual Review of Marine Science 1:169–192. [CrossRef]
  17. Donner, S.D., W.J. Skirving, C.M. Little, M. Oppenheimer, and O. Hoegh-Guldberg. 2005. Global assessment of coral bleaching and required rates of adaptation under climate change. Global Change Biology 11(12):2,251–2,265.
  18. Dustan, P., E. Dobson, and G. Nelson. 2001. Landsat Thematic Mapper: Detection of shifts in community composition of coral reefs. Conservation Biology 15(4):892–902. [CrossRef]
  19. Eakin, C.M., J.A. Morgan, S.F. Heron, T.B. Smith, G. Liu, L. Alvarez-Filip, B. Baca, E. Bartels, C. Bastidas, C. Bouchon, and others. In press. Caribbean corals in crisis: Record thermal stress, bleaching, and mortality in 2005. PLoS One.
  20. Elvidge, C.D., J.B. Dietz, R. Berkelmans, S. Andréfouët, W. Skirving, A.E. Strong, and B.T. Tuttle. 2004. Satellite observation of Keppel Islands (Great Barrier Reef) 2002 coral bleaching using IKONOS data. Coral Reefs 23(3):461–462. [CrossRef]
  21. Emery, W.J., S. Castro, G.A. Wick, P. Schluessel, and C. Donlon. 2001. Estimating sea surface temperature from infrared satellite and in situ temperature data. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 82(12):2,773–2,785.
  22. Fabricius, K.E. 2005. Effects of terrestrial runoff on the ecology of corals and coral reefs: Review and synthesis. Marine Pollution Bulletin 50:125–146. [CrossRef]
  23. Field, M.E., S.A. Cochran, J.B. Logan, and C.D. Storlazzi, eds. 2008. The Coral Reef of South Moloka`i, Hawai`i: Portrait of a Sediment-Threatened Fringing Reef. US Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5101, US Geological Survey, 190 pp. Available online at: http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2007/5101 (accessed September 22, 2010).
  24. Friedlander, A., G. Aeby, R. Brainard, E. Brown, K. Chaston, A. Clark, P. McGowan, C. Morishige, J. Rooney, H. Slay, and others. 2008. The state of coral reef ecosystems of the Main Hawaiian Islands. Pp. 219–253 in The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008. J.E. Waddell and A.M. Clarke, eds, NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 73, NOAA/NCCOS Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team, Silver Spring, MD.
  25. Friedlander, A.M., E.K. Brown, and M.E. Monaco. 2007. Coupling ecology and GIS to evaluate efficacy of marine protected areas in Hawaii. Ecological Applications 17(3):715–730. [CrossRef]
  26. García-Sais, J., R. Appeldoorn, T. Battista, L. Bauer, A. Bruckner, C. Caldow, L. Carrubba, J. Corredor, E. Diaz, C. Lilyestrom, and others. 2008. The state of coral reef ecosystems of Puerto Rico. Pp. 75–116 in The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United States and Pacific Freely Associated States: 2008. J.E. Waddell and A.M. Clarke, eds, NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 73, NOAA/NCCOS Center for Coastal Monitoring and Assessment’s Biogeography Team, Silver Spring, MD.
  27. Gledhill, D.K., R. Wanninkhof, and C.M. Eakin. 2009. Observing ocean acidification from space. Oceanography 22(4):49–59. [PDF]
  28. Gledhill, D.K., R. Wanninkhof, F.J. Millero, and M. Eakin. 2008. Ocean acidification of the Greater Caribbean Region 1996–2006. Journal of Geophysical Research 113, C10031. [CrossRef]
  29. Gordon, H.R., and M. Wang. 1994. Retrieval of water-leaving radiance and aerosol optical thickness over the oceans with SeaWiFS: A preliminary algorithm. Applied Optics 33(3):443–452. [CrossRef]
  30. Goreau, T.J., and R.L. Hayes. 1994. Coral bleaching and ocean “hot spots.” Ambio 23:176–180.
  31. Green, A., S.E. Smith, G. Lipsett-Moore, C. Groves, N. Peterson, S. Sheppard, P. Lokani, R. Hamilton, J. Almany, J. Aitsi, and L. Bualia. 2009. Designing a resilient network of marine protected areas for Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea. Oryx 43(4):488–498. [CrossRef]
  32. Guzmán, H.M., J. Cortés, P.W. Glynn, and R.H. Richmond. 1990. Coral mortality associated with dinoflagellate blooms in the eastern Pacific (Costa Rica and Panama). Marine Ecology Progress Series 60:299–303. [CrossRef]
  33. Hamel, M.A., and S. Andréfouët. 2010. Using very high resolution remote sensing for the management of coral reef fisheries: Review and perspectives. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60:1,397–1,405.
  34. Hansen, L.B., N. Kamstrup, and B.U. Hansen. 2002. Estimation of net shortwave radiation by the use of remote sensing and a digital elevation model: A case study of a high arctic mountainous area. International Journal of Remote Sensing 23(21):4,699–4,718.
  35. Hedley, J.D., and P.J. Mumby. 2002. Biological and remote sensing perspectives of pigmentation in coral reef organisms. Advances in Marine Biology 43:277–317. [CrossRef]
  36. Hedley, J.D., P.J. Mumby, K.E. Joyce, and S.R. Phinn. 2004. Spectral unmixing of coral reef benthos under ideal conditions. Coral Reefs 23:60–73. [CrossRef]
  37. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., P.J. Mumby, A.J. Hooten, R.S. Steneck, P. Greenfield, E. Gomez, C.D. Harvell, P.F. Sale, A.J. Edwards, K. Caldeira, and others. 2007. Coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification. Science 318(5857):1,737–1,742. [CrossRef]
  38. Hoegh-Guldberg, O., P.J. Mumby, A.J. Hooten, R.S. Steneck, P. Greenfield, E. Gomez, C.D. Harvell, P.F. Sale, A.J. Edwards, K. Caldeira, and others. 2008. Response to coral adaptation in the face of climate change. Science 320 (5874):315–316. [CrossRef]
  39. Hogrefe, K.R., D.J. Wright, and E.J. Hochberg. 2008. Derivation and integration of shallow-water bathymetry: Implications for coastal terrain modeling and subsequent analyses. Marine Geodesy 31:299–317. [CrossRef]
  40. Holden, H., and E. LeDrew. 1998. Spectral discrimination of healthy and non-healthy corals based on cluster analysis, principal components analysis and derivative spectroscopy. Remote Sensing of Environment 65:217–224. [CrossRef]
  41. Hu, C., F. Muller-Karger, B. Murch, D. Myhre, J. Taylor, R. Luerssen, C. Moses, C. Zhang, L. Gramer, and J.C. Hendee. 2009. Building an automated integrated observing system to detect sea surface temperature anomaly events in the Florida Keys. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 47(6):1,607–1,620.
  42. IOCCG (International Ocean Colour Coordinating Group). 2000. Remote Sensing of Ocean Colour in Coastal and Other Optically-Complex Waters. S. Sathyendranath, ed., Report of the Ocean Color Coordinating Group No. 3. IOCCG, Dartmouth, Canada, 140 pp. Available online at: http://www.ioccg.org/reports/report3.pdf (accessed September 22, 2010).
  43. IOCCG. 2010. Atmospheric Correction for Remotely-Sensed Ocean-Colour Products. M. Wang, ed., Reports of International Ocean-Color Coordinating Group No. 10, IOCCG, Dartmouth, Canada, 78 pp. Available online at: http://www.ioccg.org/reports/report10.pdf (accessed September 22, 2010).
  44. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report, Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, eds, IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm (accessed September 22, 2010).
  45. Joyce, K.E., S.R. Phinn, C.M. Roelfsema, D.T. Neil, and W.C. Dennison. 2004. Combining Landsat ETM plus and Reef Check classifications for mapping coral reefs: A critical assessment from the southern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Coral Reefs 23(1):21–25. [CrossRef]
  46. Kandirmaz, H.M., L. Yegingil, V. Pestemalci, and N. Emrahhoglu. 2004. Daily global solar radiation mapping of Turkey using Meteosat satellite data. International Journal of Remote Sensing 25(11):2,159–2,168.
  47. Kilpatrick, K.A., G.P. Podesta, and R. Evans. 2001. Overview of the NOAA/NASA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer Pathfinder algorithm for sea surface temperature and associated matchup database. Journal of Geophysical Research 106:9,179–9,197.
  48. Klemas, V.V. 2009. Remote sensing of coastal resources and environment. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 2(48):11–18.
  49. Knudby, A., E. LeDrew, and A. Brenning. 2010. Predictive mapping of reef fish species richness, diversity and biomass in Zanzibar using IKONOS imagery and machine-learning techniques. Remote Sensing of Environment 114:1,230–1,241.
  50. Knudby, A., E. LeDrew, and C. Newman. 2007. Progress in the use of remote sensing for coral reef biodiversity studies. Progress in Physical Geography 31(4):421–434. [CrossRef]
  51. Knudby, A., C.M. Newman, and E. LeDrew. 2008. Remote sensing for studies of the spatial distribution of coral reef fishes. Pp. 631–635 in Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium. Ft. Lauderdale, FL.
  52. Kuffner, I.B., J.C. Brock, R. Grober-Dunsmore, V.E. Bonito, T.D. Hickey, and C.W. Wright. 2007. Relationships between reef fish communities and remotely sensed rugosity measurements in Biscayne National Park, Florida, USA. Environmental Biology of Fishes 78(1):71–82.
  53. Lagerloef, G., F.R. Colomb, D. Le Vine, F.J. Wentz, S. Yueh, C. Ruf, J. Lilly, J. Gunn, Y. Chao, A. Decharon, and others. 2008. The Aquarius/SAC-D Mission: Designed to meet the salinity remote-sensing challenge. Oceanography 21(1):68–81. [PDF]
  54. LeDrew, E., M. Wulder, and H. Holden. 2000. Change detection of satellite imagery for reconnaissance of stressed tropical corals. Paper presented at IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society, 2000, Honolulu, HI, July 24–28, 2000.
  55. Lee, Z., K.L. Carder, and R.A. Arnone. 2002. Deriving inherent optical properties from water color: A multiband quasi-analytical algorithm for optically deep waters. Applied Optics 41(27):5,755–5,772.
  56. Lesser, M.P., and C.D. Mobley. 2007. Bathymetry, water optical properties, and benthic classification of coral reefs using hyperspectral remote sensing imagery. Coral Reefs 26:819–829. [CrossRef]
  57. Liu, G., A.E. Strong, and W. Skirving. 2003. Remote sensing of sea surface temperatures during 2002 Barrier Reef coral bleaching. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 84(15):137.
  58. Liu, G., A.E. Strong, W.J. Skirving, and L.F. Arzayus. 2006. Overview of NOAA Coral Reef Watch Program’s near-real-time satellite global coral bleaching monitoring activities. Pp. 1,783–1,793 in Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium. Okinawa, Japan, June 28–July 2, 2006.
  59. Lyzenga, D.R., N.R. Malinas, and F.J. Tanis. 2006. Multispectral bathymetry using a simple physically based algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 44:2,251–2,259.
  60. Maina, J., V. Venus, T.R. McClanahan, and M. Ateweberhan. 2008. Modelling susceptibility of coral reefs to environmental stress using remote sensing data and GIS models. Ecological Modelling 212:180–199. [CrossRef]
  61. Manzello, D., J.C. Hendee, D. Ward, and Z. Hillis-Starr. 2006. An evaluation of environmental parameters coincident with the partial bleaching event in St. Croix, US Virgin Islands. Pp. 709–717 in Proceedings of the 10th International Coral Reef Symposium. Okinawa, Japan, June 28–July 2, 2004.
  62. Manzello, D.P., J.A. Kleypas, D.A. Budd, C.M. Eakin, P.W. Glynn, and C. Langdon. 2008. Poorly cemented coral reefs of the eastern tropical Pacific: Possible insights into reef development in a high-CO2 world. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105(30):10,450–10,455.
  63. Martin, S. 2004. An Introduction to Ocean Remote Sensing. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 454 pp.
  64. McClanahan, T., M. Ateweberhan, C. Ruiz Sebastián, N. Graham, S. Wilson, J. Bruggemann, and M. Guillaume. 2007. Predictability of coral bleaching from synoptic satellite and in situ temperature observations. Coral Reefs 26(3):695–701. [CrossRef]
  65. Mellin, C., S. Andréfouët, M. Kulbicki, M. Dalleau, and L. Vigliola. 2009. Remote sensing and fish–habitat relationships in coral reef ecosystems: Review and pathways for systematic multi-scale hierarchical research. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58:11–19. [CrossRef]
  66. Mishra, D., S. Narumalani, D. Rundquist, and M. Lawson. 2006. Benthic habitat mapping in tropical marine environments using QuickBird multispectral data. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing 72(9):1,037–1,048.
  67. Moberg, F., and C. Folke. 1999. Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems. Ecological Economics 29:215–233. [CrossRef]
  68. Moses, C.S., S. Andréfouët, C.J. Kranenburg, and F.E. Muller-Karger. 2009. Regional estimates of reef carbonate dynamics and productivity using Landsat 7 ETM+, and potential impacts from ocean acidification. Marine Ecology Progress Series 380:103–115. [CrossRef]
  69. Muller-Karger, F.E., and R.A. Castro. 1994. Mesoscale processes affecting phytoplankton abundance in the southern Caribbean Sea. Continental Shelf Research 14(2/3):199–221. [CrossRef]
  70. Muller-Karger, F.E., C. Hu, S. Andréfouët, R. Varela, and R. Thunell. 2005. The color of the coastal ocean and applications in the solution of research and management problems. Pp. 101–127 in Remote Sensing of Coastal Aquatic Environments: Technologies, Techniques and Applications. R.L. Miller, C.E. Del Castillo, and B.A. McKee, eds, Springer, Dordrecht.
  71. Muller-Parker, G., and C.F. D’Elia. 1997. Interactions between corals and their symbiotic algae. Pp. 96–105 in Life and Death of Coral Reefs. C. Birkeland, ed., Chapman & Hall, New York.
  72. Mumby, P.J. 2006. Connectivity of reef fish between mangroves and coral reefs: Algorithms for the design of marine reserves at seascape scales. Biological Conservation 128:215–222. [CrossRef]
  73. Mumby, P.J., and A.J. Edwards. 2002. Mapping marine environments with IKONOS imagery: Enhanced spatial resolution can deliver greater thematic accuracy. Remote Sensing of Environment 82(2–3):248–257. [CrossRef]
  74. Mumby, P.J., J.R.M. Chisholm, C.D. Clark, J.D. Hedley, and J. Jaubert. 2001. A bird’s-eye view of the health of coral reefs. Nature 413(6851):1.
  75. Mumby, P.J., E.P. Green, C.D. Clark, and A.J. Edwards. 1998. Digital analysis of multispectral airborne imagery of coral reefs. Coral Reefs 17(1):59–69. [CrossRef]
  76. Mumby, P.J., J.D. Hedley, J.R.M. Chisholm, C.D. Clark, H. Ripley, and J. Jaubert. 2004. The cover of living and dead corals from airborne remote sensing. Coral Reefs 23(2):171–183.
  77. Mumby, P.J., W. Skirving, A.E. Strong, J.T. Hardy, E.F. LeDrew, E.J. Hochberg, R.P. Stumpf, and L.T. David. 2004. Remote sensing of coral reefs and their physical environment. Marine Pollution Bulletin 48(3–4):219. [CrossRef]
  78. Myint, S.W., C.P. Giri, L. Wang, Z. Zhu, and S.C. Gillette. 2008. Identifying mangrove species and their surrounding land use and land cover classes using an object-oriented approach with a lacunarity spatial measure. GIScience and Remote Sensing 45(2):188–208. [CrossRef]
  79. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. 2009. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program Goals & Objectives 2010–2015. Silver Spring, MD, 40 pp. Available online at: http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcrcp/strategy/currentgoals/resources/3threats_go.pdf (accessed September 27, 2010).
  80. Obura, D.O. 2005. Resilience and climate change: Lessons from coral reefs and bleaching in the western Indian Ocean. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 63(3):353. [CrossRef]
  81. Phinn, S., C. Roelfsema, A.G. Dekker, V.E. Brando, and J. Anstee. 2008. Mapping seagrass species, cover and biomass in shallow waters: An assessment of satellite multi-spectral and airborne hyper-spectral imaging systems in Moreton Bay (Australia). Remote Sensing of Environment 112(8):3,413–3,425.
  82. Pittman, S.J., J.D. Christensen, C. Caldow, C. Menza, and M.E. Monaco. 2007. Predictive mapping of fish species richness across shallow-water seascapes in the Caribbean. Ecological Modelling 204:9–21. [CrossRef]
  83. Porter, J.W., and J.I. Tougas. 2001. Reef ecosystems: Threats to their biodiversity. Pp. 73–95 in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity. S.A. Levin, ed., Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
  84. Purkis, S.J., S.W. Myint, and B.M. Riegl. 2006. Enhanced detection of the coral Acropora cervicornis from satellite imagery using a textural operator. Remote Sensing of Environment 101:82–94. [CrossRef]
  85. Qin, Y., V.E. Brando, A.G. Dekker, and D. Blondeau-Patissier. 2007. Validity of SeaDAS water constituents retrieval algorithms in Australian tropical coastal waters. Geophysical Research Letters 34:1–4. [CrossRef]
  86. Reynolds, R.W., T.M. Smith, C. Liu, D.B. Chelton, K.S. Casey, and M.G. Schlax. 2007. Daily high-resolution-blended analyses for sea surface temperature. Journal of Climate 20:5,473–5,496.
  87. Robinson, I.S. 2004. Measuring the Oceans from Space: The Principles and Methods of Satellite Oceanography. Springer-Verlag, New York, 669 pp.
  88. Rogers, C.S. 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation. Marine Ecology Progress Series 62:185–202. [CrossRef]
  89. Rowlands, G.P., J.A. Goodman, B.M. Riegl, P.G. Renaud, and S.J. Purkis. 2008. Habitat mapping in the Farasan Islands (Saudi Arabia) using CASI and QuickBird imagery. Pp. 642–646 in Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium. Session number 17, Ft. Lauderdale, FL, July 7–11, 2008.
  90. Scopélitis, J., S. Andréfouët, S. Phinn, L. Arroyo, M. Dalleau, A. Cros, and P. Chabanet. 2010. The next step in shallow coral reef monitoring: Combining remote sensing and in situ approaches. Marine Pollution Bulletin. [CrossRef]
  91. Skirving, W., and J. Guinotte. 2001. The sea surface temperature story on the Great Barrier Reef during the coral bleaching event of 1998. Pp. 301–314 in Oceanographic Processes of Coral Reefs: Physical and Biological Links in the Great Barrier Reef. E. Wolanski, ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
  92. Soto, I., S. Andréfouët, C. Hu, F.E. Muller-Karger, C.C. Wall, J. Sheng, and B.G. Hatcher. 2009. Physical connectivity in the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System inferred from 9 years of ocean color observations. Coral Reefs 28:415–425. [CrossRef]
  93. Strong, A.E., C.S. Barrientos, C. Duda, and J. Sapper. 1997. Improved satellite techniques for monitoring coral reef bleaching. Pp. 1,495–1,498 in Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium Vol. 2. H.A. Lessios and I.G. Macintyre, eds, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama.
  94. Strong, A.E., G. Liu, C.M. Eakin, T.R.L. Christensen, W.J. Skirving, D.K. Gledhill, S.F. Heron, and J.A. Morgan. 2009. Implications for our coral reefs in a changing climate over the next few decades: Hints from the past 22 years. Pp. 1,324–1,328 in Proceedings of the 11th International Coral Reef Symposium. Ft. Lauderdale, FL. July 7–11, 2008.
  95. Su, H., H. Liu, and W.D. Heyman. 2008. Automated derivation of bathymetric information from multi-spectral satellite imagery using a non-linear inversion model. Marine Geodesy 31:281–298. [CrossRef]
  96. Tovar, H.F., and J.M. Baldasano. 2001. Solar radiation mapping from NOAA AVHRR data in Catalonia, Spain. Journal of Applied Meteorology 40:1,821–1,834.
  97. UNEP-WCMC (United Nations Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre). 2006. In the Front Line: Shoreline Protection and Other Ecosystem Services from Mangroves and Coral Reefs. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK, 33 pp.
  98. van Hooidonk, R., and M. Huber. 2009. Quantifying the quality of coral bleaching predictions. Coral Reefs 28:579–587. [CrossRef]
  99. Veron, J.E.N. 2008. Mass extinctions and ocean acidification: Biological constraints on geological dilemmas. Coral Reefs 27:459–472. [CrossRef]
  100. Wabnitz, C.C., S. Andréfouët, D. Torres-Pulliza, F.E. Muller-Karger, and P.A. Kramer. 2008. Regional-scale seagrass habitat mapping in the Wider Caribbean region using Landsat sensors: Applications to conservation and ecology. Remote Sensing of Environment 112(8):3,455–3,467. [CrossRef]
  101. Wang, M. 2007. Remote sensing of the ocean contributions from ultraviolet to near-infrared using the shortwave infrared bands: Simulations. Applied Optics 46(9):1,535–1,547.
  102. Wang, M., S. Son, and L.W. Harding Jr. 2009. Retrieval of diffuse attenuation coefficient in the Chesapeake Bay and turbid ocean regions for satellite ocean color applications. Journal of Geophysical Research 114, C10011. [CrossRef]
  103. Wang, M., S. Son, and W. Shi. 2009. Evaluation of MODIS SWIR and NIR-SWIR atmospheric correction algorithms using SeaBASS data. Remote Sensing of Environment 113:635–644. [CrossRef]
  104. Wentz, F.J., L. Ricciardulli, K. Hilburn, and C. Mears. 2007. How much more rain will global warming bring? Science 317(233):233–235. [CrossRef]
  105. Yamano, H., and M. Tamura. 2004. Detection limits of coral reef bleaching by satellite remote sensing: Simulation and data analysis. Remote Sensing of Environment 90:86–103. [CrossRef]
  106. Zhang, H.M., J.J. Bates, and R.W. Reynolds. 2006. Assessment of composite global sampling: Sea surface wind speed. Geophysical Research Letters 33:1–5. [CrossRef]
Copyright & Usage

This is an open access article made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format as long as users cite the materials appropriately, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate the changes that were made to the original content. Images, animations, videos, or other third-party material used in articles are included in the Creative Commons license unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If the material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission directly from the license holder to reproduce the material.