Oceanography The Official Magazine of
The Oceanography Society
Volume 25 Issue 01

View Issue TOC
Volume 25, No. 1
Pages 128 - 141

OpenAccess

Hydrothermal Discharge During Submarine Eruptions: The Importance of Detection, Response, and New Technology

By Edward T. Baker , William W. Chadwick Jr., James P. Cowen, Robert P. Dziak , Kenneth H. Rubin , and Daniel J. Fornari  
Jump to
Article Abstract Citation References Copyright & Usage
Article Abstract

Submarine volcanic eruptions and intrusions construct new oceanic crust and build long chains of volcanic islands and vast submarine plateaus. Magmatic events are a primary agent for the transfer of heat, chemicals, and even microbes from the crust to the ocean, but the processes that control these transfers are poorly understood. The 1980s discovery that mid-ocean ridge eruptions are often associated with brief releases of immense volumes of hot fluids (“event plumes”) spurred interest in methods for detecting the onset of eruptions or intrusions and for rapidly organizing seagoing response efforts. Since then, some 35 magmatic events have been recognized and responded to on mid-ocean ridges and at seamounts in both volcanic arc and intraplate settings. Field responses at mid-ocean ridges have found that event plumes occur over a wide range of eruption styles and sizes, and thus may be a common consequence of ridge eruptions. The source(s) of event plume fluids are still debated. Eruptions detected at ridges generally have high effusion rates and short durations (hours to days), whereas field responses at arc volcanic cones have found eruptions with very low effusion rates and durations on the scale of years. New approaches to the study of submarine magmatic events include the development of autonomous vehicles for detection and response, and the establishment of permanent seafloor observatories at likely future eruption sites.

Citation

Baker, E.T., W.W. Chadwick Jr., J.P. Cowen, R.P. Dziak, K.H. Rubin, and D.J. Fornari. 2012. Hydrothermal discharge during submarine eruptions: The importance of detection, response, and new technology. Oceanography 25(1):128–141, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2012.11.

References
    Baker, E.T. 1995. Characteristics of hydrothermal discharge following a magmatic intrusion. Pp. 65–76 in Hydrothermal Vents and Processes. L.M. Parson, C.L. Walker, and D.R. Dixon, eds, Special Publication 87, Geological Society, London, UK.
  1. Baker, E.T., C.G. Fox, and J.P. Cowen. 1999. In situ observations of the onset of hydrothermal discharge during the 1998 submarine eruption of Axial Volcano, Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geophysical Research Letters 26:3,445–3,448, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL002331.
  2. Baker, E.T., J.W. Lavelle, R.A. Feely, G.J. Massoth, S.L. Walker, and J.E. Lupton. 1989. Episodic venting of hydrothermal fluids from the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Journal of Geophysical Research 94:9,237–9,250, https://doi.org/10.1029/JB094iB07p09237.
  3. Baker, E.T., J.E. Lupton, J.A. Resing, T. Baumberger, M. Lilley, S.L. Walker, and K. Rubin. 2011. Unique event plumes from a 2008 eruption on the Northeast Lau Spreading Center. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 12, Q0AF02, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GC003725.
  4. Baker, E.T., G.J. Massoth, C.E.J. de Ronde, J.E. Lupton, and B.I.A. McInnes. 2002. Observations and sampling of an ongoing subsurface eruption of Kavachi Volcano, Solomon Islands, May 2000. Geology 30:975–978, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0975:OASOAO>2.0.CO;2.
  5. Baker, E.T., G.J. Massoth, and R.A. Feely. 1987. Cataclysmic hydrothermal venting on the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Nature 329:149–151, https://doi.org/10.1038/329149a0.
  6. Bohnenstiehl, D.R., R.P. Dziak, M. Tolstoy, C.G. Fox, and M. Fowler. 2004. Temporal and spatial history of the 1999–2000 Endeavour Segment seismic series, Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 5, Q09003, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GC000735.
  7. Bohnenstiehl, D.R., M. Tolstoy, C.G. Fox, R.P. Dziak, E. Chapp, M. Fowler, J. Haxel, C. Fisher, and the shipboard party of R/V Atlantis Voyage 7 Leg XXVI. 2003. Anomalous seismic activity at 8°37’–42’N on the East Pacific Rise: Hydroacoustic detection and site investigation. Ridge 2000 Events 1:18–20. Available online at: http://web.mac.com/drbohnen/MG_NCSU/Publications_files/RE.pdf (accessed December 5, 2011).
  8. Butterfield, D.A., W.W. Chadwick Jr., M.D. Lilley, K.K. Roe, J.E. Lupton, R.P. Dziak, S.L. Walker, E.J. Olson, and L.J. Evans. 2011a. Fluid chemistry through an eruption cycle at Axial Seamount 1998–2011. Abstract V14C-07 presented at the American Geophysical Union 2011 fall meeting, December 5–9, 2011, San Francisco, CA.
  9. Butterfield, D.A., I.R. Jonasson, G.J. Massoth, R.A. Feely, K.K. Roe, R.E. Embley, J.F. Holden, R.E. McDuff, M.D. Lilley, and J.R. Delaney. 1997. Seafloor eruptions and evolution of hydrothermal fluid chemistry. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 355:369–386, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.1997.0013.
  10. Butterfield, D.A., K. Nakamura, B. Takano, M.D. Lilley, J.E. Lupton, J.A. Resing, and K.K. Roe. 2011b. High SO2 flux, sulfur accumulation and gas fractionation at an erupting submarine volcano. Geology 39(9):803–806, https://doi.org/10.1130/G31901.1.
  11. Cann, J.R., and M.R. Strens. 1989. Modeling periodic megaplume emission by black smoker systems. Journal of Geophysical Research 94:12,227–12,237.
  12. Caress, D.W., D.A. Clague, H. Thomas, D. Thompson, J.B. Paduan, J. Martin, and W.W. Chadwick Jr. 2011. Extent of the 2011 Axial Seamount eruption from repeated 1-m scale bathymetry surveys with the MBARI Mapping AUV. Abstract V11E-2557 presented at the American Geophysical Union 2011 fall meeting, December 5–9, 2011, San Francisco, CA.
  13. Cathles, L.M. 1993. A capless 350°C flow zone model to explain megaplumes, salinity variations, and high-temperature veins in ridge axis hydrothermal systems. Economic Geology and the Bulletin of the Society of Economic Geologists 88:1,977–1,988, https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.88.8.1977.
  14. Chadwick, W.W. Jr., K.V. Cashman, R.W. Embley, H. Matsumoto, R.P. Dziak, C.E.J. de Ronde, T.K. Lau, N.D. Deardorff, and S.G. Merle. 2008. Direct video and hydrophone observations of submarine explosive eruptions at NW Rota-1 Volcano, Mariana Arc. Journal of Geophysical Research 113, B08S10, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007JB005215.
  15. Chadwick, W.W. Jr., R.P. Dziak, J.H. Haxel, R.W. Embley, and H. Matsumoto. 2011a. Submarine landslide triggered by volcanic eruption recorded by in-situ hydrophone. Geology 40:51–54, https://doi.org/10.1130/G32495.1.
  16. Chadwick, W.W. Jr., R.W. Embley, and C.G. Fox. 1991. Evidence for volcanic eruption on the southern Juan de Fuca Ridge between 1981 and 1987. Nature 350:416–418, https://doi.org/10.1038/350416a0.
  17. Chadwick, W.W. Jr., S.L. Nooner, D.A. Butterfield, M.D. Lilley, D.A. Clague, D.W. Caress, R.P. Dziak, and J.H. Haxel. 2011b. Discovery of the 2011 eruption at Axial Seamount. Abstract V14C-04 presented at the American Geophysical Union 2011 fall meeting, December 5–9, 2011, San Francisco, CA.
  18. Chadwick, W.W. Jr., S.L. Nooner, M.A. Zumberge, R.W. Embley, and C.G. Fox. 2006. Vertical deformation monitoring at Axial Seamount since its 1998 eruption using deep-sea pressure sensors. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 150:313–327, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2005.07.006.
  19. Clague, D.A., D.W. Caress, J.B. Paduan, W.W. Chadwick, Jr., D.A. Butterfield, H. Thomas, D. Conlin, and D. Thompson. 2007. AUV mapping of Axial Seamount, Juan de Fuca Ridge: The southern caldera floor and upper south rift. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 88(52):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract T33B-1354.
  20. Clague, D.A., J.B. Paduan, and A.S. Davis. 2009. Widespread strombolian eruptions of mid-ocean ridge basalt. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 180:171–188, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.08.007.
  21. Cowen, J.P., and E.T. Baker. 1998. The 1996 Gorda Ridge event detection and response activities: Historical perspective and future implications. Deep-Sea Research Part II 45:2,503–2,512.
  22. Cowen, J.P., E.T. Baker, and R.W. Embley. 2004. Detection of and response to mid-ocean ridge magmatic events: Implications for the subsurface biosphere. Pp. 227–243 in The Subseafloor Biosphere at Mid-Ocean Ridges. W.S.D. Wilcock, E.F. DeLong, D.S. Kelley, J.A. Baross, and S.C. Cary, eds, Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 144, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.
  23. Cowen, J.P., M.A. Bertram, E.T. Baker, G.J. Massoth, R.A. Feely, and M. Summit. 1998. Geomicrobial transformation of manganese in Gorda Ridge event plumes. Deep-Sea Research Part II 45:2,713–2,738, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00090-3.
  24. Cowen, J.P., D.J. Fornari, T.M. Shank, B. Love, B. Glazer, A.H. Treusch, R.C. Holmes, S.A. Soule, E.T. Baker, M. Tolstoy, and K.R. Pomraning. 2007. Volcanic eruptions at East Pacific Rise crest near 9°50’N. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 88(7):81–82, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007EO070001.
  25. Davis, E., K. Becker, R. Dziak, J. Cassidy, K. Wang, and M. Lilley. 2004. Hydrological response to a seafloor spreading episode on the Juan de Fuca Ridge. Nature 430:335–338, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02755.
  26. Deardorff, N.D., K.V. Cashman, and W.W. Chadwick Jr. 2011. Observations of eruptive plumes and pyroclastic deposits from submarine explosive eruptions at NW Rota-1, Mariana Arc. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 202(1–2):47–59, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2011.01.003.
  27. Devine, J.D., and H. Sigurdsson. 1995. Petrology and eruption styles of Kick’em-Jenny submarine volcano, Lesser Antilles island arc. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 69:35–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-0273(95)00025-9.
  28. Dietz, R.S. 1961. Continent and ocean basin evolution by spreading of the sea floor. Nature 190:854–857, https://doi.org/10.1038/190854a0.
  29. Dziak, R.P., and C.G. Fox. 1999. The January 1998 earthquake swarm at Axial Volcano, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Evidence for submarine volcanic activity. Geophysical Research Letters 26(23):3,429–3,432.
  30. Dziak, R.P., E.T. Baker, A.M. Shaw, D.R. Bohnenstiehl, W.W. Chadwick Jr., J.H. Haxel, H. Matsumoto, and S.L. Walker. 2011a. Gas flux measurements from a year-long hydroacoustic record at an erupting submarine volcano. American Geophysical Union 2011 fall meeting, December 5–9, 2011, San Francisco, CA, Abstract V52C-07.
  31. Dziak, R.P., D.R. Bohnenstiehl, J.P. Cowen, E.T. Baker, K.H. Rubin, J.H. Haxel, and M.J. Fowler. 2007. Rapid dike emplacement leads to eruptions and hydrothermal plume release during seafloor spreading events. Geology 35:579–582, https://doi.org/10.1130/G23476A.1.
  32. Dziak, R.P., D.R. Bohnenstiehl, and D.K. Smith. 2012. Hydroacoustic monitoring of oceanic spreading centers: Past, present, and future. Oceanography 25(1):116–127, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2012.10.
  33. Dziak, R.P., W.W. Chadwick Jr., C.G. Fox, and R.W. Embley. 2003. Hydrothermal temperature changes at the southern Juan de Fuca Ridge associated with Mw 6.2 Blanco Transform earthquake. Geology 31(2):119–122, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031<0119:HTCATS>2.0.CO;2.
  34. Dziak, R.P., C.G. Fox, R.W. Embley, J.E. Lupton, W.W. Chadwick Jr., and R.A. Koski. 1996. Detection of and response to a probable volcanogenic T-wave event swarm on the Western Blanco Transform Fault Zone. Geophysical Research Letters 23(8):873–876, https://doi.org/10.1029/96GL00240.
  35. Dziak, R.P., S.R. Hammond, and C.G. Fox. 2011b. A 20-year hydroacoustic time series of seismic and volcanic events in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Oceanography 24(3):280–293, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.79.
  36. Dziak, R.P., M. Park, W.S. Lee, H. Matsumoto, D.R. Bohnenstiehl, and J.H. Haxel. 2010. Tectonomagmatic activity and ice dynamics in the Bransfield Strait back-arc basin, Antarctica. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, B01102, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JB006295.
  37. Dziak, R., D. Smith, D. Bohnenstiehl, C. Fox, D. Desbruyeres, H. Matsumoto, M. Tolstoy, and D. Fornari. 2004. Evidence of a recent magma dike intrusion at the slow-spreading Lucky Strike segment, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Journal of Geophysical Research 109(B12), B12102, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004JB003141.
  38. Edmonds, H.N., P.J. Michael, E.T. Baker, D.P. Connelly, J.E. Snow, C.H. Langmuir, H.J.B. Dick, R. Mühe, D.W. German, and D.W. Graham. 2003. Discovery of abundant hydrothermal venting on the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel ridge in the Arctic Ocean. Nature 421:252–256, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01351.
  39. Embley, R.W., and J.E. Lupton. 2004. Diking, event plumes, and the subsurface biosphere at mid-ocean ridges. Pp. 75–97 in The Subseafloor Biosphere at Mid-Ocean Ridges. W.S.D. Wilcock, E.F. DeLong, D.S. Kelley, J.A. Baross, and S.C. Cary, eds, Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 144, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.
  40. Embley, R.W., W.W. Chadwick Jr., E.T. Baker, D.A. Butterfield, J.A. Resing, C.E.J. de Ronde, V. Tunnicliffe, J.E. Lupton, S.K. Juniper, K.H. Rubin, and others. 2006. Long-term eruptive activity at a submarine arc volcano. Nature 441(7092):494–497, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04762.
  41. Embley, R.W., W.W. Chadwick Jr., D. Clague, and D. Stakes. 1999. 1998 eruption of Axial Volcano: Multibeam anomalies and seafloor observations. Geophysical Research Letters 26(23):3,425–3,428, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL002328.
  42. Embley, R.W., W.W. Chadwick Jr., M.R. Perfit, and E.T. Baker. 1991. Geology of the northern Cleft segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Recent lava flows, sea-floor spreading, and the formation of megaplumes. Geology 19:771–775, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1991)019<0771:GOTNCS>2.3.CO;2.
  43. Fox, C.G. 1995. Special collection on the June 1993 volcanic eruption on the CoAxial Segment, Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geophysical Research Letters 22(2):129–130, https://doi.org/10.1029/94GL02967.
  44. Fox, C.G., W.W. Chadwick Jr., and R.W. Embley. 2001a. Direct observation of a submarine volcanic eruption from a sea-floor instrument caught in a lava flow. Nature 412:727–729, https://doi.org/10.1038/35089066.
  45. Fox, C.G., J.P. Cowen, R.P. Dziak, E.T. Baker, R.W. Embley, W.W. Chadwick, J.E. Lupton, J.A. Resing, and S.R. Hammond. 2001c. Detection and response to a seafloor spreading episode on the Central Gorda Ridge, April 2001. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 82(Fall Meeting Supplement):F855.
  46. Fox, C.G., R.P. Dziak, H. Matsumoto, and A.E. Schreiner. 1993. Potential for monitoring low-level seismicity on the Juan de Fuca Ridge using military hydrophone arrays. Marine Technology Society Journal 27:22–30.
  47. Fox, C.G., H. Matsumoto, and T.-K.A. Lau. 2001b. Monitoring Pacific Ocean seismicity from an autonomous hydrophone array. Journal of Geophysical Research 106(B3):4,183–4,206, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900404.
  48. Fox, C.G., W.E. Radford, R.P. Dziak, T.K. Lau, H. Matsumoto, and A.E. Schreiner. 1995. Acoustic detection of a seafloor spreading episode on the Juan de Fuca Ridge using military hydrophone arrays. Geophysical Research Letters 22(2):131–134, https://doi.org/10.1029/94GL02059.
  49. Fundis, A., S. Soule, D.J. Fornari, and M.R. Perfit. 2010. Paving the seafloor: Volcanic emplacement processes during the 2005-06 eruption at the fast-spreading East Pacific Rise, 9°50’N. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems (EPR Volume), https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GC003058.
  50. Garcia, M.O., K.H. Rubin, M.D. Norman, J.M. Rhodes, D.W. Graham, D.W. Muenow, and K. Spencer. 1998. Petrology and geochronology of basalt breccia from the 1996 earthquake swarm of Loihi seamount, Hawaii: Magmatic history of its 1996 eruption. Bulletin of Volcanology 59:577–592, https://doi.org/10.1007/s004450050211.
  51. Haymon, R.M., D.J. Fornari, K.L. Von Damn, M.D. Lilley, M.R. Perfit, J.M. Edmond, W.C. Shanks, R.A. Lutz, J.M. Grebmeier, S. Carbotte, and others. 1993. Volcanic eruption of the mid-ocean ridge along the East Pacific Rise crest at 9°45–52’N: Direct submersible observations of seafloor phenomena associated with an eruption event in April 1991. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 119:85–101, https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-821X(93)90008-W.
  52. Haxel, J.H., R.P. Dziak, H. Matsumoto, M.J. Fowler, and B. Chadwick. 2011. A time history of micro-seismicity leading to volcanic eruption at Axial Volcano, Juan de Fuca Ridge. American Geophysical Union 2011 fall meeting, December 5–9, 2011, San Francisco, CA, Abstract V41C-06.
  53. Heezen, B.C., M. Tharp, and M. Ewing. 1959. The floors of the ocean, 1. The North Atlantic. Special Paper 65. Geological Society of America.
  54. Hess, H.H. 1960. Nature of great oceanic ridges. Pp. 33–34 in Preprints of the 1st International Oceanographic Congress (New York, August 31–September 12, 1959). American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, DC.
  55. Holden, J.F., M. Summit, and J.A. Baross. 1998. Thermophilic and hyperthermophilic microorganisms in 3–30°C hydrothermal fluids following a deep-sea volcanic eruption. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 25:33–41, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.1998.tb00458.x.
  56. Hooft, E.E.E., H. Patel, W. Wilcock, K. Becker, D. Butterfield, E. Davis, R. Dziak, K. Inderbitzen, M. Lilley, P. McGill, and others. 2010. A seismic swarm and regional hydrothermal and hydrologic perturbations: The northern Endeavour Segment, February 2005. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 11, Q12015, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010GC003264.
  57. Huber, R., P. Stotters, J.L. Cheminee, H.H. Richnow, and K.O. Stetter. 1990. Hyperthermophilic archaebacteria within the crater and open-sea plume of erupting Macdonald Seamount. Nature 345:179–182, https://doi.org/10.1038/345179a0.
  58. Johnson, K.T.M., D.W. Graham, K.H. Rubin, K. Nicolaysen, D.S. Scheirer, D.W. Forsyth, E.T. Baker, and L.M. Douglas-Priebe. 2000a. Boomerang Seamount: The active expression of the Amsterdam–St. Paul hotspot, Southeast Indian Ridge. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 183(1–2):245–259, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00279-X.
  59. Johnson, H.P., M. Hutnak, R.P. Dziak, C.G. Fox, I. Urcuyo, J.P. Cowen, J. Nabelek, and C. Fisher. 2000b. Disturbances in oceanic crustal fluid circulation: Response of the Endeavour/Juan de Fuca hydrothermal system to a magnitude 4.5 earthquake. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 81(48):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract OS52I-08.
  60. Leybourne, M.I., C.E.J. de Ronde, E.T. Baker, K. Faure, S.L. Walker, J. Resing, and G.J. Massoth. 2010. Submarine magmatic-hydrothermal systems at the Monowai Volcanic Centre, Kermadec Arc. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 74(12, Supplement 1):A587.
  61. Lowell, R.P., and L.N. Germanovich. 1995. Dike injection and the formation of megaplumes at ocean ridges. Science 267:1,804–1,807, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.267.5205.1804.
  62. Lupton, J.E., E.T. Baker, and G.J. Massoth. 1999. Helium, heat, and the generation of hydrothermal event plumes at mid-ocean ridges. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 171(3):343–350, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(99)00149-1.
  63. Matsumoto, H., D.R. Bohnenstiehl, J.H. Haxel, R.P. Dziak, and R.W. Embley. 2011. Mapping the sound field of an erupting submarine volcano using an acoustic glider. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 129(3):EL94–EL99, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.3547720.
  64. Matsumoto, H., R.P. Dziak, D.K. Mellinger, M. Fowler, A. Lau, C. Meinig, J. Bumgardner, and W. Hannah. 2006. Autonomous hydrophones at NOAA/OSU and a new seafloor sentry system for real-time detection of acoustic events. Pp. 1–4 in Oceans 2006. MTS/IEEE–Boston, September 18–21, 2006, IEEE Oceanic Engineering Society, https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANS.2006.307041.
  65. McClain, J.S., R.A. Zierenberg, J.R. Voight, K.L. Von Damm, and K.H. Rubin. 2004. A recent volcanic eruption on a “magma starved” segment of the East Pacific Rise ISS, 10°44’N. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 85(47):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract B13A-0177.
  66. Merle, S.G., R.P. Dziak, R.W. Embley, J.E. Lupton, R. Greene, W.W. Chadwick Jr., M. Lilley, D.R. Bohnenstiehl, J. Braunmiller, M. Fowler, and J. Resing. 2008. Preliminary analysis of multibeam, subbottom, and water column data collected from the Juan de Fuca Plate and Gorda Ridge earthquake swarm sites, March–April 2008. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 89(53):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract T23B-2025.
  67. Murton, B.J., E.T. Baker, C.M. Sands, and C.R. German. 2006. Detection of an unusually large hydrothermal event plume above the slow-spreading Carlsberg Ridge: NW Indian Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L10608, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006GL026048.
  68. Nehlig, P. 1993. Interactions between magma chambers and hydrothermal systems: Oceanic and ophiolitic constraints. Journal of Geophysical Research 98:19,621–19,633, https://doi.org/10.1029/93JB01822.
  69. Nishimura, C.E, P.R. Vogt, L. Smith, and J.D. Boyd. 1989. Investigation of a possible underwater volcanic eruption on the Reykjanes Ridge by airborne sonobuoys and AXBTs. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 70:1,301.
  70. Nojiri, Y., J. Ishibashi, T. Kawai, and H. Sakai. 1989. Hydrothermal plumes along the North Fiji Basin spreading axis. Nature 342:667–670, https://doi.org/10.1038/342667a0.
  71. Nooner, S.L., and W.W. Chadwick Jr. 2009. Volcanic inflation measured in the caldera of Axial Seamount: Implications for magma supply and future eruptions. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 10, Q02002, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GC002315.
  72. Olafsson, J. 1991. A sudden cruise off Iceland. RIDGE Events 2:35–38.
  73. OOI (Ocean Observatories Initiative). 2006. Review Report of the NSF Conceptual Design Review Panel for the Ocean Observatories Initiative. Conducted August 14–17, 2006, at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute in Moss Landing, CA, 69 pp.
  74. Palmer, M.R., and G.G.J. Ernst. 1998. Generation of hydrothermal megaplumes by cooling of pillow basalts at mid-ocean ridges. Nature 393:643–647, https://doi.org/10.1038/31397.
  75. Resing, J., K.H. Rubin, R. Embley, J. Lupton, E.T. Baker, R. Dziak, T. Baumberger, M. Lilley, J. Huber, T. Shank, and others. 2011. Active submarine eruption of boninite in the northeastern Lau Basin. Nature Geoscience 4:799–806, https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1275.
  76. Royer, J.-Y., R.P. Dziak, M. Delatre, C. Brachet, J.H. Haxel, H. Matsumoto, J. Goslin, V. Brandon, D.R. Bohnenstiehl, C. Guinet, and F. Samaran. 2008. Preliminary results from an hydroacoustic experiment in the Indian Ocean. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 89(53):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract T51B-1883.
  77. Rubin, K.H., and J.D. Macdougall. 1989. Submarine magma degassing and explosive magmatism at Macdonald (Tamarii) seamount. Nature 341:50–52, https://doi.org/10.1038/341050a0.
  78. Rubin, K.H., R.W. Embley, D.A. Clague, J.A. Resing, P.J. Michael, N.S. Keller, and E.T. Baker. 2009. Lavas from active boninite and very recent basalt eruptions at two submarine NE Lau Basin sites. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 90(52):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract V43I-05.
  79. Rubin, K.H., J.D. Macdougall, and M.R. Perfit. 1994. 210Po-210Pb dating of recent volcanic eruptions on the sea floor. Nature 368:841–844, https://doi.org/10.1038/368841a0.
  80. Rubin, K.H., S.A. Soule, W.W. Chadwick Jr., D.J. Fornari, D.A. Clague, R.W. Embley, E.T. Baker, M.R. Perfit, D.W. Caress, and R.P. Dziak. 2012. Volcanic eruptions in the deep sea. Oceanography 25(1):142–157, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2012.12.
  81. Rubin, K.H., M. Tolstoy, D.J. Fornari, R.P. Dziak, S.A. Soule, F. Waldhauser, and K.L. Von Damm. 2008. Integrating radiometric, geophysical and thermal signals of volcanic unrest and eruption in 2005–06 at 9°50’N EPR. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 89(53):Fall Meeting Supplement Abstract B23F-07.
  82. Schlindwein, V., C. Muller, and W. Jokat. 2005. Seismoacoustic evidence for volcanic activity on the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel Ridge, Arctic Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters 32, L18306, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023767.
  83. Smith, D.K., M. Tolstoy, C.G. Fox, D.R. Bohnenstiehl, H. Matsumoto, and M.J. Fowler. 2002. Hydroacoustic monitoring of seismicity at the slow-spreading mid-Atlantic ridge. Geophysical Research Letters 29(11), 1518, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GL013912.
  84. Sohn, R.A., C. Willis, S.E. Humphris, T.M. Shank, H. Singh, H.N. Edmonds, C. Kunz, U. Hedman, E. Helmke, M. Jakuba, and others. 2008. Explosive volcanism on the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel ridge, Arctic Ocean. Nature 453:1,236–1,238, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07075.
  85. Soule, S.A., D.J. Fornari, M.R. Perfit, and K.H. Rubin. 2007. New insights into mid-ocean ridge volcanic processes from the 2005–2006 eruption of the East Pacific Rise, 9°46’N–9°56’N. Geology 35(12):1,079–1,082, https://doi.org/10.1130/G23924A.1.
  86. Summit, M., and J.A. Baross. 1998. Thermophilic subseafloor microorganisms from the 1996 north Gorda Ridge eruption. Deep-Sea Research Part II 45(12):2,751–2,766, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(98)00092-7.
  87. The 1996 Loihi Science Team. 1997. Researchers rapidly respond to submarine activity at Loihi Volcano, Hawaii. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 78:229–233, https://doi.org/10.1029/97EO00150.
  88. Tolstoy, I., and M. Ewing. 1950. The T phase of shallow-focus earthquakes. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 40:25–51.
  89. Tolstoy, M., D.R. Bohnenstiehl, M.H. Edwards, and G.J. Kurras. 2001. Seismic character of volcanic activity at the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel Ridge. Geology 29:1,139–1,142, https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)029<1139:SCOVAA>2.0.CO;2.
  90. Tolstoy, M., J.P. Cowen, E.T. Baker, D.J. Fornari, K.H. Rubin, T.M. Shank, F. Waldhauser, D.R. Bohnenstiehl, D.W. Forsyth, R.C. Holmes, and others. 2006. A sea-floor spreading event captured by seismometers. Science 314(5807):1,920–1,922, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133950.
  91. van der Zander, I., K.H. Rubin, and R.A. Zierenberg. 2005. A geochemical comparison of two recent EPR eruptions north and south of the Clipperton Fracture Zone. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union 86(18):Joint Assembly Supplement Abstract V51A-03.
  92. Wilcock, W.S.D. 1997. A model for the formation of transient event plumes above mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal systems. Journal of Geophysical Research 102:12,109–12,121, https://doi.org/10.1029/97JB00512.
Copyright & Usage

This is an open access article made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format as long as users cite the materials appropriately, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate the changes that were made to the original content. Images, animations, videos, or other third-party material used in articles are included in the Creative Commons license unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If the material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission directly from the license holder to reproduce the material.