Coastal areas constitute important habitats, and they contain a large and growing population, much of it located in economic centers such as London, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai, Mumbai, and Lagos. The range of coastal hazards includes climate-induced sea level rise, a long-term threat that demands broad response. Global sea levels rose 17 cm through the twentieth century, and are likely to rise more rapidly through the twenty-first century when a rise of more than 1 m is possible. In some locations, these changes may be exacerbated by (1) increases in storminess due to climate change, although this scenario is less certain, and (2) widespread human-induced subsidence due to ground fluid withdrawal from, and drainage of, susceptible soils, especially in deltas. Relative sea level rise has a range of potential impacts, including higher extreme sea levels (and flooding), coastal erosion, salinization of surface and ground waters, and degradation of coastal habitats such as wetlands. Without adaptation, large land areas and millions of people could be displaced by sea level rise. Appropriate responses include climate mitigation (a global response) and/or adaptation (a local response). A combination of these strategies appears to be the most appropriate approach to sea level rise regardless of the uncertainty. Adaptation responses can be characterized as (1) protect, (2) accommodate, or (3) retreat. While these adaptation responses could reduce impacts significantly, they will need to be consistent with responses to all coastal hazards, as well as with wider societal and development objectives; hence, an integrated coastal management philosophy is required. In some developed countries, including England and the Netherlands, proactive adaptation plans are already being formulated. Coastal cities worldwide will be a major focus for adaptation efforts because of their concentrations of people and assets. Developing countries will pose adaptation challenges, especially in deltaic areas and small islands, which are the most vulnerable settings.

Nicholls, R.J. 2011. Planning for the impacts of sea level rise. Oceanography 24(2):144–157, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2011.34.

Adger, W.N., S. Agrawala, M.M.Q. Mirza, C. Conde, K. O’Brien, J. Pulhin, R. Pulwarty, B. Smit, and K. Takahashi. 2007. Assessment of adaptation practices, options, constraints and capacity. Pp. 717–743 in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. M. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P. Van der Linden, and C.E. Hanson, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Anthoff, D., R.J. Nicholls, and R.S.J. Tol. 2010. The economic impact of substantial sea-level rise. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 15:321–335. [CrossRef]

Barnett, J., and W.N. Adger. 2003. Climate dangers and atoll countries. Climatic Change 61:321–337. [CrossRef]

Barras, J., S. Beville, D. Britsch, S. Hartley, S. Hawes, J. Johnston, P. Kemp, Q. Kinler, A. Martucci, J. Porthouse, and others. 2003. Historical and Projected Coastal Louisiana Land Changes: 1978–2050. US Geological Survey Open File Report 03-334, 39 pp. Available online at: http://lacoast.gov/new/Data/Ed/NewHistoricalland.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Barth, M.C., and J.G. Titus, eds. 1984. Greenhouse Effect and Sea Level Rise: A Challenge for this Generation. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 238 pp. Available online at: http://epa.gov/climatechange/effects/coastal/SLRChallenge.html (accessed May 24, 2011).

Bird, E.C.F. 1985. Coastline Changes: A Global Review. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 219 pp.

Bird, E.C.F. 2000. Coastal Geomorphology: An Introduction. Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK, 340 pp.

Burton, I. 2004. Climate change and the adaptation deficit. Pp. 25–33 in Climate Change: Building the Adaptive Capacity. A. Fenech, R.B. Rong, D. MacIver, and H. Auld, eds, Meteorological Service of Canada, Environment Canada. Available online at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/Publications/default.asp?lang=En&xml=5580FFCC-C0D2-43EB-B390-705B767EA200 (accessed May 24, 2011).

Chatterjee, R.S., B. Fruneau, J.P. Rudant, P.S. Roy, P. Frison, R.C. Lakhera, V.K. Dadhwal, and R. Saha. 2006. Subsidence of Kolkata (Calcutta) City, India during the 1990s as observed from space by Differential Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (D-InSAR) technique. Remote Sensing of Environment 102:176–185. [CrossRef]

Church, J.A., and N.J. White. 2011. Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st century. Surveys in Geophysics. [CrossRef]

Church, J., P.L. Woodworth, T. Aarup, and S. Wilson, eds. 2010. Understanding Sea-Level Rise and Variability. Wiley-Blackwell, 456 pp.

Crossland, C.J., H.H. Kremer, H.J. Lindeboom, J.I. Marshall Crossland, and M.D.A. Le Tissier, eds. 2005. Coastal Fluxes in the Anthropocene. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 252 pp.

Dasgupta, S., B. Laplante, C. Meisner, D. Wheeler, and J. Yan. 2009. The impact of sea level rise on developing countries: A comparative analysis. Climatic Change 93:379–388. [CrossRef]

Dawson, R.J., M. Dickson, R. Nicholls, J. Hall, M. Walkden, P.K. Stansby, M. Mokrech, J. Richards, J. Zhou, J. Milligan, and others. 2009. Integrated analysis of risks of coastal flooding and cliff erosion under scenarios of long term change. Climatic Change 95:249–288. [CrossRef]

Doody, J.P. 2004. “Coastal squeeze”: An historical perspective. Journal of Coastal Conservation 10:129–138. [CrossRef]

Emery, K.O., and D.G. Aubrey. 1991. Sea Levels, Land Levels and Tide Gauges. Springer, New York, 237 pp.

Ericson, J.P., C.J. Vorosmarty, S.L. Dingman, L.G. Ward, and M. Meybeck. 2006. Effective sea-level rise and deltas: Causes of change and human dimension implications. Global and Planetary Change 50:63–82. [CrossRef]

Fankhauser, S. 1995. Protection versus retreat: Estimating the costs of sea-level rise. Environment and Planning A 27:299–319. [CrossRef]

Fankhauser, S., and R.S.J. Tol. 2005. On climate change and economic growth. Resource and Energy Economics 27:1–17. [CrossRef]

Fankhauser, S., J.B. Smith, and R.S.J. Tol. 1999. Weathering climate change: Some simple rules to guide adaptation decisions. Ecological Economics 30:67–78. [CrossRef]

Few, R., M. Ahern, F. Matthies, and S. Kovats. 2004. Floods, Health and Climate Change: A Strategic Review. Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, University of East Anglia Working Paper 63, Norwich, UK, 138 pp. Available online at: http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/content/floods-health-and-climate-change-strategic-review (accessed May 24, 2011).

Fletcher, C.A., and T. Spencer, eds. 2005. Flooding and Environmental Challenges for Venice and its Lagoon: State of Knowledge. Cambridge University Press, 691 pp.

Flynn, T.J., S.G. Walesh, J.G. Titus, and M.C. Barth. 1984. Implications of sea level rise for hazardous waste sites in coastal floodplains. Chapter 9 in Greenhouse Effect and Sea Level Rise: A Challenge for this Generation. M.C. Barth and J.G. Titus, eds, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Grossi, P., and R. Muir-Wood. 2006. Flood Risk in New Orleans: Implications for Future Management and Insurability. Risk Management Solutions (RMS), London, UK, 31 pp. Available online at: http://www.rms.com/Publications/NO_FloodRisk.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Hallegatte, S. 2009. Strategies to adapt to an uncertain climate change. Global Environmental Change 19:240–247. [CrossRef]

Hay, J.E. 2009. Institutional and Policy Analysis of Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate Change Adaptation in Pacific Island Countries. United Nations International System for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Suva, Fiji, 114 pp. Available online at: http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/publications/18869 (accessed May 24, 2011).

Hoozemans, F.M.J., M. Marchand, and H.A. Pennekamp. 1993. A Global Vulnerability Analysis: Vulnerability Assessment for Population, Coastal Wetlands and Rice Production on a Global Scale, 2nd ed. Delft Hydraulics, Delft.

IGES (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies). 2007. Sustainable Groundwater Management in Asian Cities: A Final Report of Research on Sustainable Water Management Policy. IGES Freshwater Resources Management Project, Hayama, Japan. Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 97 pp. Available online at: http://enviroscope.iges.or.jp/modules/envirolib/view.php?docid=264 (accessed May 24, 2011).

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Core writing team R.K. Pachauri and A. Reisinger, eds, Geneva, Switzerland, 104 pp. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_synthesis_report.htm (accessed May 24, 2011).

IPCC CZMS. 1990. Strategies for Adaptation to Sea Level Rise. Report of the Coastal Zone Management Subgroup, Response Strategies Working Group of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, Netherlands.

Kabat, P., L.O. Fresco, M.J.F. Stive, C.P. Veerman, J. van Alphen, B. Parmet, W. Hazeleger, and C.A. Katsman. 2009. Dutch coasts in transition. Nature Geoscience 2:450–452. [CrossRef]

Klein, R.J.T., and R.J. Nicholls. 1999. Assessment of coastal vulnerability to climate change. Ambio 28:182–187.

Klein, R.J.T., J. Aston, E.N. Buckley, M. Capobianco, N. Mizutani, R.J. Nicholls, P.D. Nunn, and S. Ragoonaden. 2000. Coastal adaptation. Chapter 15 in IPCC Special Report on Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer. B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, J.W. Martens, S.N.M. Van Rooijen, and L.L. Van Wie McGrory, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/tectran/index.php?idp=290 (accessed May 24, 2011).

Klein, R.J.T., R.J. Nicholls, S. Ragoonaden, M. Capobianco, J. Aston, and E.N. Buckley. 2001. Technological options for adaptation to climate change in coastal zones. Journal of Coastal Research 17:531–543.

Kremer, H.H., M.D.A. Le Tisser, P.R. Burbridge, L. Talaue-McManus, N.N. Rabalais, J. Parslow, C.J. Crossland, and W. Young. 2004. Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone: Science Plan and Implementation Strategy. IGBP Secretariat. IGBP Report 51/IHDP Report 18, Stockholm, Sweden, 60 pp. Available online at: http://www.igbp.net/documents/resources/report-51.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Kron, W. 2008. Coasts: The riskiest places on Earth. Pp. 3–21 in Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Coastal Engineering. J. McKee Smith, ed., World Scientific, Hamburg, Germany.

Linham, M.M., and R.J. Nicholls. 2010. Technologies for Climate Change Adaptation: Coastal Erosion and Flooding. TNA Guidebook Series, UNEP Risø Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development, Roskilde, Denmark, 150 pp.

Lowe, J.A., T.P. Howard, A. Pardaens, J. Tinker, J. Holt, S. Wakelin, G. Milne, J. Leake, J. Wolf, K. Horsburgh, and others. 2009. UK Climate Projections Science Report: Marine and Coastal Projections. Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, UK. Available online at: http://ukclimateprojections.defra.gov.uk/images/stories/marine_pdfs/UKP09_Marine_report.pdf (accessed October 21, 2010).

McGranahan, G., D. Balk, and B. Anderson. 2007. The rising tide: Assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environment and Urbanization 19:17–37. [CrossRef]

Meehl, G.A., T.F. Stocker, W. Collins, P. Friedlingstein, A. Gaye, J. Gregory, A. Kitoh, R. Knutti, J. Murphy, A. Noda, and others. 2007. Global climate projections. Chapter 10 in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. S. Solomon, D. Qin, and M. Manning, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, NY. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch10.html (accessed May 24, 2011).

Menéndez, M., and P.L. Woodworth. 2010. Changes in extreme high water levels based on a quasi-global tide-gauge data set. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, C10011. [CrossRef]

Milliman, J.D., and B.U. Haq, eds. 1996. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Subsidence: Causes, Consequences and Strategies. Kluwer Academic, Dortrect, The Netherlands, 384 pp.

Milliman, J.D., J.M. Broadus, and F. Gable. 1989. Environmental and economic implications of rising sea level and subsiding deltas: The Nile and Bengal examples. Ambio 18:340–345.

Mimura, N., L. Nurse, R. McLean, J. Agard, L. Briguglio, P. Lefale, R. Payet, and G. Sem. 2007. Small islands. Pp. 687–716 in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. M. Parry, O. Canziani, J. Palutikof, P. van der Linden, and C. Hanson, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_wg2_report_ impacts_adaptation_and_vulnerability.htm (accessed May 24, 2011).

Nicholls, R.J. 1995. Coastal megacities and climate change. Geojournal 37:369–379. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J. 2004. Coastal flooding and wetland loss in the 21st century: Changes under the SRES climate and socio-economic scenarios. Global Environmental Change 14:69–86. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J. 2009. Living on the edge: Review of The Rising Sea by O.H. Pilkey and R. Young. Nature Geoscience 2:459. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J. 2010. Impacts of and responses to sea-level rise. Pp. 17–51 in Understanding Sea-Level Rise and Variability. J.A. Church, P.L. Woodworth, T. Aarup, and W.W. Wilson, eds, Wiley-Blackwell. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., and A. Cazenave. 2010. Sea level rise and its impact on coastal zones. Science 328:1,517–1,520. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., and R.J.T. Klein. 2005. Climate change and coastal management on Europe’s coast. Pp. 199–226 in Managing European Coasts: Past, Present and Future. J.E. Vermaat, L. Ledoux, K. Turner, W. Salomons, and L. Bouwer, eds, Environmental Science Monograph Series, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., and J.A. Lowe. 2004. Benefits of mitigation of climate change for coastal areas. Global Environmental Change 14:229–244. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., and J.A. Lowe. 2006. Climate stabilisation and impacts of sea-level rise. Chapter 20 in Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change. H.J. Schellnhuber, W. Cramer, N. Nakicenovic, T.M.L. Wigley, and G. Yohe, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Nicholls, R.J., and R.S.J. Tol. 2006. Impacts and responses to sea-level rise: A global analysis of the SRES scenarios over the twenty-first century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 364:1,073–1,095. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., S. Brown, S. Hanson, and J. Hinkel. 2010. Economics of Coastal Zone Adaptation to Climate Change. Discussion Paper No. 10. World Bank, Washington DC, 50 pp. Available online at: http://water.worldbank.org/water/publications/economics-coastal-zone-adaptation-climate-change (accessed May 24, 2011).

Nicholls, R.J., S. Hanson, C. Herweijer, N. Patmore, S. Hallegatte, J. Corfee-Morlot, J. Chateau, and R. Muir-Wood. 2008b. Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes-Exposure Estimates. Environmental Working Paper No. 1. Paris Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 62 pp. Available online at: http://are.berkeley.edu/courses/EEP151/fall2008/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/hellegateetal_oecd.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Nicholls, R.J., M.J. Hoozemans, and M. Marchand. 1999. Increasing flood risk and wetland losses due to global sea-level rise: Regional and global analyses. Global Environmental Change 9:S69–S87. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., N. Marinova, J.A. Lowe, S. Brown, P. Vellinga, D. de Gusmão, J. Hinkel, and R.S.J. Tol. 2011. Sea-level rise and its possible impacts given a “beyond 4 degree world” in the 21st century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 369:161–181. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett, J.O. Codignotto, J.E. Hay, R.F. McLean, S. Ragoonaden, and C.D. Woodroffe. 2007a. Coastal systems and low-lying areas. Chapter 6 in Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. M. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P. Van Der Linden, and C.E. Hanson, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Available online at: http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg2/ar4-wg2-chapter6.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Nicholls, R.J., P.P. Wong, V.R. Burkett, C.D. Woodroffe, and J.E. Hay. 2008a. Climate change and coastal vulnerability assessment: Scenarios for integrated assessment. Sustainability Science 3(1):89–102. [CrossRef]

Nicholls, R.J., C.D. Woodroffe, and V.R. Burkett. 2009. Coastal degradation as an indicator of global change. Pp. 409–424 in Climate Change: Observed Impacts on Planet Earth. T.M. Letcher, ed., Elsevier, Oxford, UK.

Parry, M.L., N.W. Arnell, P.M. Berry, D. Dodman, S. Fankhauser, C. Hope, S. Kovats, R.J. Nicholls, D. Satterthwaite, R. Tiffin, and T. Wheeler. 2009. Assessing the Costs of Adaptation to Climate Change: A Review of the UNFCCC and Other Recent Estimates. International Institute for Environment and Development and Grantham Institute for Climate Change, London, 111 pp.

Peltier, W. 2000. Global glacial isostatic adjustment and modern instrumental records of relative sea level history. Chapter 4 in Sea Level Rise: History and Consequences. B. Douglas, M.S. Kearny, and S.P. Leatherman, eds, International Geophysics 75:65–95. [CrossRef]

Phien-Wej, N., P.H. Giao, and P. Nutalaya. 2006. Land subsidence in Bangkok, Thailand. Engineering Geology 82:187–201. [CrossRef]

Pilkey, O.H., and R. Young. 2009. The Rising Sea. Island Press/Shearwater Books, Washington, DC, 203 pp.

RIBA and ICE. 2010. Facing Up to Rising Sea Levels: Retreat? Defend? Attack? RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects) and ICE (Institution of Civil Engineers), London. Available online at: http://www.buildingfutures.org.uk/assets/downloads/Facing_Up_To_Rising_Sea_Levels.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Rodolfo, K.S., and F.P. Siringan. 2006. Global sea-level rise is recognised, but flooding from anthropogenic land subsidence is ignored around northern Manila Bay, Philippines. Disaster Management 30:118–139.

Rosenzweig, C., and W. Solecki, eds. 2010. Climate change adaptation in New York City: Building a risk management response. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1196:1–354. Available online at: http://www.nyas.org/publications/annals/Detail.aspx?cid=ab9d0f9f-1cb1-4f21-b0c8-7607daa5dfcc (accessed May 24, 2011).

Sachs, J.D., A.D. Mellinger, and J.L. Gallup. 2001. The geography of poverty and wealth. Scientific American 284:70–75. [CrossRef]

Simpson, M.C., D. Scott, M. New, R. Sim, D. Smith, M. Harrison, C.M. Eakin, R. Warrick, A.E. Strong, P. Kouwenhoven, and others. 2009. An Overview of Modelling Climate Change Impacts in the Caribbean Region with Contribution from the Pacific Islands. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Barbados, West Indies, 266 pp. Available online at: http://www.caribsave.org/assets/files/UNDP%20Final%20Report.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Stive, M.J.F., P. Cowell, and R.J. Nicholls. 2009. Beaches, cliffs and deltas. Pp. 158–179 in Geomorphology and Global Environmental Change. O. Slaymaker, T. Spencer, and C. Embleton-Hamann, eds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Sugiyama, M., R.J. Nicholls, and A. Vafeidis. 2008. Estimating the Economic Cost of Sea-Level Rise. Report No. 156. MIT Joint Program on the Science and policy of Global Change, Boston, USA.

Syvitski, J.P.M., A.J. Kettner, I. Overeem, E.W.H. Hutton, M.T. Hannon, G.R. Brakenridge, J. Day, C. Vörösmarty, Y. Saito, L. Giosan, and R.J. Nicholls. 2009. Sinking deltas due to human activities. Nature Geoscience 2:681–689. [CrossRef]

Tol, R.S.J. 2002a. Estimates of the damage costs of climate change. Part I. Benchmark estimates. Environmental and Resource Economics 21:47–73. [CrossRef]

Tol, R.S.J. 2002b. Estimates of the damage costs of climate change. Part II. Dynamic estimates. Environmental and Resource Economics 21:135–160. [CrossRef]

Tol, R.S.J., R.J.T. Klein, and R.J. Nicholls. 2008. Towards successful adaptation to sea level rise along Europe’s coasts. Journal of Coastal Research 24(2):432–442. [CrossRef]

Tribbia, J., and S.C. Moser. 2008. More than information: What coastal managers need to plan for climate change. Environmental Science & Policy 11:315–328. [CrossRef]

Turner, R.K., P. Doktor, and W.N. Adger. 1995. Assessing the costs of sea-level rise. Environment and Planning A 27:1,777–1,796.

USAID (United States Agency for International Development). 2009. Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners. USAID, Rhode Island, USA. Available online at: http://www.crc.uri.edu/download/CoastalAdaptationGuide.pdf (accessed October 7, 2010).

Valiela, I. 2006. Global Coastal Change. Wiley-Blackwell, Malden, MA, USA, 376 pp.

Van Koningsveld, M., J.P.M. Mulder, M.J.F. Stive, L. Van Der Valk, and A.W. Van Der Weck. 2008. Living with sea-level rise and climate change: A case study of the Netherlands. Journal of Coastal Research 24:367–379.

Ward, P.J., M.A. Marfai, F. Yulianto, D.R. Hizbaron, and J.C.J.H. Aerts. 2011. Coastal inundation and damage exposure estimation: A case study for Jakarta. Natural Hazards 56:899–916. [CrossRef]

Warrick, R.A., E.M. Barrow, and T.M.L. Wigley, eds. 1993. Climate and Sea Level Change: Observations, Projections, Implications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 448 pp.

World Bank. 2010. The Economics of Adaptation to Climate Change. A synthesis report, final consultation draft. World Bank, Washington, DC, 79 pp. Available online at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTCC/Resources/EACC_FinalSynthesisReport0803_2010.pdf (accessed May 24, 2011).

Zhang, K.Q., B.C. Douglas, and S.P. Leatherman. 2000. Twentieth-century storm activity along the US East Coast. Journal of Climate 13:1,748–1,761. [CrossRef]

This is an open access article made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format as long as users cite the materials appropriately, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate the changes that were made to the original content. Images, animations, videos, or other third-party material used in articles are included in the Creative Commons license unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If the material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission directly from the license holder to reproduce the material.