Oceanography The Official Magazine of
The Oceanography Society
Volume 27 Issue 04

View Issue TOC
Volume 27, No. 4
Pages 104 - 115

OpenAccess

Jellyfish, Forage Fish, and the World's Major Fisheries

By Kelly L. Robinson , James J. Ruzicka , Mary Beth Decker, Richard D. Brodeur, Frank J. Hernandez, Javier Quiñones, E. Marcelo Acha , Shin-ichi Uye, Hermes Mianzan (deceased) , and William M. Graham 
Jump to
Article Abstract Citation References Copyright & Usage
Article Abstract

A majority of the world’s largest net-based fisheries target planktivorous forage fish that serve as a critical trophic link between the plankton and upper-level consumers such as large predatory fishes, seabirds, and marine mammals. Because the plankton production that drives forage fish also drives jellyfish production, these taxa often overlap in space, time, and diet in coastal ecosystems. This overlap likely leads to predatory and competitive interactions, as jellyfish are effective predators of fish early life stages and zooplankton. The trophic interplay between these groups is made more complex by the harvest of forage fish, which presumably releases jellyfish from competition and is hypothesized to lead to an increase in their production. To understand the role forage fish and jellyfish play as alternate energy transfer pathways in coastal ecosystems, we explore how functional group productivity is altered in three oceanographically distinct ecosystems when jellyfish are abundant and when fish harvest rates are reduced using ecosystem modeling. We propose that ecosystem-based fishery management approaches to forage fish stocks include the use of jellyfish as an independent, empirical “ecosystem health” indicator.

Citation

Robinson, K.L., J.J. Ruzicka, M.B. Decker, R.D. Brodeur, F.J. Hernandez, J. Quiñones, E.M. Acha, S.-i. Uye, H. Mianzan, and W.M. Graham. 2014. Jellyfish, forage fish, and the world’s major fisheries. Oceanography 27(4):104–115, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2014.90.

References

Acuña, J.L., Á. López-Urrutia, and S.P. Colin. 2011. Faking giants: The evolution of high prey clearance rates in jellyfishes. Science 333:1,627–1,629, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1205134.

Alheit, J., and E. Hagen. 1997. Long-term climate forcing of European herring and sardine populations. Fisheries Oceanography 6:130–139, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2419.1997.00035.x.

Alheit, J., and M. Niquen. 2004. Regime shifts in the Humboldt Current ecosystem. Progress in Oceanography 60:201–222, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2004.02.006.

Angel, D., D. Edelist, and S. Freeman. 2014. Local perspectives on regional challenges: Jellyfish proliferation and fish stock management along the Israeli Mediterranean coast. Regional Environmental Change, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-014-0613-0.

Annis, E.R., E.D. Houde, L.W. Harding Jr., M.E. Mallonee, and M.J. Wilberg. 2011. Calibration of a bioenergetics model linking primary production to Atlantic menhaden Brevoortia tyrannus growth in Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series 437:253–267, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09254.

Aydin, K., and F. Mueter. 2007. The Bering Sea: A dynamic food web perspective. Deep Sea Research Part II 54:2,501–2,525, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.08.022.

Bakun, A., E. Babcock, S. Lluch-Cota, C. Santora, and C. Salvadeo. 2010. Issues of ecosystem-based management of forage fisheries in “open” non-stationary ecosystems: The example of the sardine fishery in the Gulf of California. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 20:9–29, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-009-9118-1.

Brierley, A.S., B.E. Axelsen, E. Buecher, C.A.J. Sparks, H. Boyer, and M.J. Gibbons. 2001. Acoustic observations of jellyfish in the Namibian Benguela. Marine Ecology Progress Series 210:55–66, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps210055.

Brodeur, R.D., C. Barcelo, K.L. Robinson, E.A. Daly, and J.J. Ruzicka. 2014. Spatial overlap between forage fishes and the large medusa Chrysaora fuscescens in the northern California Current region. Marine Ecology Progress Series 510:167–181, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10810.

Brodeur, R.D., J.J. Ruzicka, and J.H. Steele. 2011. Investigating alternate pathways through gelatinous zooplankton and plantivorous fishes in an upwelling ecosystem using end-to-end models. Pp. 57–63 in Interdisciplinary Studies on Environmental Chemistry: Marine Environmental Modeling & Analysis. TERRAPUB, Tokyo.

Brodeur, R.D., C.L. Suchman, D.C. Reese, T.W. Miller, and E.A. Daly. 2008. Spatial overlap and trophic interactions between pelagic fish and large jellyfish in the northern California Current. Marine Biology 154:649–659, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-008-0958-3.

Brodeur, R.D., H. Sugisaki, and G.L. Hunt Jr. 2002. Increases in jellyfish biomass in the Bering Sea: Implications for the ecosystem. Marine Ecology Progress Series 233:89–103, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps233089.

Brotz, L., W.W. Cheung, K. Kleisner, E. Pakhomov, and D. Pauly. 2012. Increasing jellyfish populations: Trends in large marine ecosystems. Hydrobiologia 690:3–20, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1039-7.

Brown, C.W., R.R. Hood, W. Long, J. Jacobs, D.L. Ramers, C. Wazniak, J.D. Wiggert, R. Wood, and J. Xu. 2012. Ecological forecasting in Chesapeake Bay: Using a mechanistic-empirical modeling approach. Journal of Marine Systems 125:113–125, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2012.12.007.

Cardona, L., I. Álvarez de Quevedo, A. Borrell, and A. Aguilar. 2012. Massive consumption of gelatinous plankton by Mediterranean apex predators. PLoS ONE 7(3):e31329, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0031329.

Casini, M., J. Lövgren, J. Hjelm, M. Cardinale, J.-C. Molinero, and G. Kornilovs. 2008. Multi-level trophic cascades in a heavily exploited open marine ecosystem. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275:1,793–1,801, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2007.1752.

Chavez, F.P., J. Ryan, S. Lluch-Cota, and M.C. Ñiquen. 2003. From anchovies to sardines and back: Multidecadal change in the Pacific Ocean. Science 299:217–221, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1075880.

Chiaverano, L.M., B.S. Holland, G.L. Crow, L. Blair, and A.A. Yanagihara. 2013. Long-term fluctuations in circalunar beach aggregations of the Box Jellyfish Alatina moseri in Hawaii, with links to environmental variability. PLoS ONE 8(10):e77039, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077039.

Condon, R.H., C.M. Duarte, K.A. Pitt, K.L. Robinson, C.H. Lucas, K.R. Sutherland, H.W. Mianzan, M. Bogeberg, J.E. Purcell, M.B. Decker, and others. 2013. Recurrent jellyfish blooms are a consequence of global oscillations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110:1,000–1,005, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210920110.

Conley, K. 2013. Settlement preferences of the Pacific Sea Nettle, Chrysaora fuscescens, and the socioeconomic impacts of jellyfish on fishers in the Northern California Current. MS Thesis. University of Oregon, Eugene.

Costello, J.H., B.K. Sullivan, and J. Gifford. 2006. A physical-biological interaction underlying variable phenological responses to climate change by coastal zooplankton. Journal of Plankton Research 28:1,099–1,105, https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbl042.

D’Ambra, I. 2012. Application of stable isotopes in the analysis of trophic interactions between gelatinous zooplankton and fish. PhD Dissertation. University of South Alabama, Mobile.

Daryanbard, R., and M.N. Dawson. 2008. Jellyfish blooms: Crambionella orsini (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae) in the Gulf of Oman, Iran, 2002–2003. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 88:477–483, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315408000945.

Dawson, M., and W. Hamner. 2009. A character-based analysis of the evolution of jellyfish blooms: Adaptation and exaptation. Hydrobiologia 616:193–215, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-008-9591-x.

Dawson, M.N., L.E. Martin, and L.K. Penland. 2001. Jellyfish swarms, tourists, and the Christ-child. Hydrobiologia 451:131–144, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011868925383.

Deason, E.E., and T.J. Smayda. 1982. Ctenophore-zooplankton-phytoplankton interactions in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island, USA, during 1972–1977. Journal of Plankton Research 4:203–217, https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/4.2.203.

Decker, M.B., C.W. Brown, R.R. Hood, J.E. Purcell, T.F. Gross, J.C. Matanoski, R.O. Bannon, and E.M. Setzler-Hamilton. 2007. Predicting the distribution of the scyphomedusa Chrysaora quinquecirrha in Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series 329:99–113, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps329099.

Decker, M.B., K. Cieciel, A. Zavolokin, R. Lauth, R. Brodeur, and K. Coyle. 2014. Population fluctuations of jellyfish in the Bering Sea and their ecological role in this productive shelf ecosystem. Pp. 153–183 in Jellyfish Blooms. K.A. Pitt and C.H. Lucas, eds, Springer Science Business Media, Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Di Lorenzo, E., N. Schneider, K.M. Cobb, P.J.S. Franks, K. Chhak, A.J. Miller, J.C. McWilliams, S.J. Bograd, H. Arango, E. Curchitser, and others. 2008. North Pacific Gyre Oscillation links ocean climate and ecosystem change. Geophysical Research Letters 35, L08607, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL032838.

Dong, Z., D. Liu, and J.K. Keesing. 2010. Jellyfish blooms in China: Dominant species, causes and consequences. Marine Pollution Bulletin 60:954–963, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.04.022.

Duarte, C.M., K.A. Pitt, C.H. Lucas, J.E. Purcell, S.-i. Uye, K.L. Robinson, L. Brotz, M.B. Decker, K.R. Sutherland, A. Malej, and others. 2012. Is global ocean sprawl a cause of jellyfish blooms? Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 11:91–97, https://doi.org/10.1890/110246.

Engelhard, G.H., M.A. Peck, A. Rindorf, S.C. Smout, M. van Deurs, K. Raab, K.H. Andersen, S. Garthe, R.A.M. Lauerburg, F. Scott, and others. 2013. Forage fish, their fisheries, and their predators: Who drives whom? ICES Journal of Marine Science 71:90–104, https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fst087.

Eriksen, E., D. Prozorkevich, A. Trofimov, and D. Howell. 2012. Biomass of scyphozoan jellyfish, and its spatial association with 0-group fish in the Barents Sea. PLoS ONE 7(3):e33050, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0033050.

Fossette S., A.C. Gleiss, J.P. Casey, A.R. Lewis, G.C. Hays. 2012. Does prey size matter? Novel observations of feeding in the leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) allow a test of predator–prey size relationships. Biology Letters 8:351–354, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0965.

Frank, K.T., B. Petrie, J.S. Choi, and W.C. Leggett. 2005. Trophic cascades in a formerly cod-dominated ecosystem. Science 308:1,621–1,623, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1113075.

Fromentin, J.-M., and B. Planque. 1996. Calanus and environment in the eastern North Atlantic: Part 2. Role of the North Atlantic Oscillation on Calanus finmarchicus and C. helgolandicus. Marine Ecology Progress Series 134:111–118, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps134111.

Gemmell, B.J., J.H. Costello, S.P. Colin, C.J. Stewart, J.O. Dabiri, D. Tafti, and S. Priya. 2013. Passive energy recapture in jellyfish contributes to propulsive advantage over other metazoans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110:17,904–17,909, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1306983110.

Gibbons, M.J., and A.J. Richardson. 2013. Beyond the jellyfish joyride and global oscillations: Advancing jellyfish research. Journal of Plankton Research 35:929–938, https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbt063.

Govoni, J.J. 1997. The association of the population recruitment of gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, with Mississippi River discharge. Journal of Marine Systems 12:101–108, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-7963(96)00091-7.

Graham, W.M. 2001. Numerical increases and distributional shifts of Chrysaora quinquecirrha (Desor) and Aurelia aurita (Linné) (Cnidaria: Scyphozoa) in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Hydrobiologia 451:97–111, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011844208119.

Graham, W.M., S. Gelcich, K.L. Robinson, C.M. Duarte, L. Brotz, J.E. Purcell, L.P. Madin, H. Mianzan, K.R. Sutherland, S.-i. Uye, and others. 2014. Linking human well-being and jellyfish: Ecosystem services, impacts and societal responses. Frontiers in the Ecology and Environment 12:515–523, https://doi.org/10.1890/130298.

Graham, W.M., D.L. Martin, D.L. Felder, V.L. Asper, and H.M. Perry. 2003. Ecological and economic implications of a tropical jellyfish invader in the Gulf of Mexico. Biological Invasions 5:53–69, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024046707234.

Hamner, W.M., and M.N. Dawson. 2009. A review and synthesis on the systematics and evolution of jellyfish blooms: Advantageous aggregations and adaptive assemblages. Hydrobiologia 616:161–191, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-008-9620-9.

Haraldsson, M., K. Tonnesson, T.F. Thingstad, and D.L. Aksnes. 2012. Relationship between fish and jellyfish as a function of eutrophication and water clarity. Marine Ecology Progress Series 471:73–85, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10036.

Hays, G.C., T. Bastian, T.K. Doyle, S. Fossette, A.C. Gleiss, M.B. Gravenor, V.J. Hobson, N.E. Humphries, M.K.S. Lilley, N.G. Pade, and D.W. Sims. 2012. High activity and Lévy searches: Jellyfish can search the water column like fish. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 279:465–473, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2011.0978.

Houde, E.D. 1987. Fish early life dynamics and recruitment variability. American Fisheries Society Symposium 2:17–29.

Hurrell, J.W., Y. Kushnir, and G. Ottersen. 2003. The North Atlantic Oscillation: Climatic Significance and Environmental Impact. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, 35 pp.

Iriogien, X., and A. de Roos. 2011. The role of intraguild predation in the population dynamics of small pelagic fish. Marine Biology 158:1,683–1,690, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-011-1699-2.

Kawahara, M., U. Shin-ichi, K. Ohtsu, and H. Iizumi. 2006. Unusual population explosion of the giant jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae) in East Asian waters. Marine Ecology Progress Series 307:161–173, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps307161.

Kideys, A.E., A. Roohi, S. Bagheri, G. Finenko, and L. Kamburska. 2005. Impacts of invasive ctenophores on the fisheries of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea. Oceanography 18:76–85, https://doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2005.43.

Kim, D.-H., J.-N. Seo, W.-D. Yoon, and Y.-S. Suh. 2012. Estimating the economic damage caused by jellyfish to fisheries in Korea. Fisheries Science 78:1,147–1,152, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12562-012-0533-1.

Kirby, R.R., G. Beaugrand, and J.A. Lindley. 2009. Synergistic effects of climate and fishing in a marine ecosystem. Ecosystems 12:548–561, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-009-9241-9.

Litz, M.N.C., R.L. Emmett, P.J. Bentley, A.M. Claiborne, and C. Barcelo. 2014. Biotic and abiotic factors influencing forage fish and pelagic nekton community in the Columbia River plume (USA) throughout the upwelling season 1999–2009. ICES Journal of Marine Science71:5–18, https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fst082.

Litzow, M.A., F.J. Mueter, and A.J. Hobday. 2014. Reassessing regime shifts in the North Pacific: Incremental climate change and commercial fishing are necessary for explaining decadal-scale biological variability. Global Change Biology 20:38–50, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12373.

Liu, W.-C., W.-T. Lo, J.E. Purcell, and H.-H. Chang. 2009. Effects of temperature and light intensity on asexual reproduction of the scyphozoan Aurelia aurita (L.) in Taiwan. Hydrobiologia 616:247–258, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-008-9597-4.

Lohrenz, S.E., G.L. Fahnenstiel, D.G. Redalje, G.A. Lang, X. Chen, and M.J. Dagg. 1997. Variations in primary production of northern Gulf of Mexico continental shelf waters linked to nutrient inputs from the Mississippi River. Marine Ecology Progress Series 155:45–54, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps155045.

Lucas, C.H., K.A. Pitt, J.E. Purcell, M. Lebrato, and R.H. Condon. 2011. What’s in a jellyfish? Proximate and elemental composition and biometric relationships for use in biogeochemical studies. Ecology 92:1,704, https://doi.org/10.1890/11-0302.1.

Lynam, C.P., M.J. Gibbons, B.E. Axelsen, C.A.J. Sparks, J. Coetzee, B.G. Heywood, and A.S. Brierley. 2006. Jellyfish overtake fish in a heavily fished ecosystem. Current Biology 16:R492–R493, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.018.

Lynam, C.P., S.J. Hay, and A.S. Brierley. 2004. Interannual variability in abundance of North Sea jellyfish and links to the North Atlantic Oscillation. Limnology and Oceanography 49:637–643, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2004.49.3.0637.

Lynam, C.P., M.R. Heath, S.J. Hay, and A.S. Brierley. 2005. Evidence for impacts by jellyfish on North Sea herring recruitment. Marine Ecology Progress Series 298:157–167, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps298157.

Lynam, C.P., M.K.S. Lilley, T. Bastian, T.K. Doyle, S.E. Beggs, and G.C. Hays. 2011. Have jellyfish in the Irish Sea benefited from climate change and overfishing? Global Change Biology 17:767–782, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02352.x.

Mantua, N.J., and S.R. Hare. 2002. The Pacific Decadal Oscillation. Journal of Oceanography 58:35–44, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015820616384.

Marasco, R.J., D. Goodman, C.B. Grimes, P.W. Lawson, A.E. Punt, and T.J. Quinn II. 2007. Ecosystem-based fisheries management: Some practical suggestions. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 64:928–939, https://doi.org/10.1139/f07-062.

Mianzan, H., J. Quinones, S. Palma, A. Schiariti, E.M. Acha, K. Robinson, and W. Graham. 2014. Chrysaora plocamia: A poorly understood jellyfish from South American waters. Pp. 219–236 in Jellyfish Blooms. K.A. Pitt and C.H. Lucas, eds, Springer Science Business Media Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Molinero, J.C., F. Ibanez, and P. Nival. 2005. The North Atlantic climate and the northwestern Mediterranean plankton variability. Limnology and Oceanography 50:1,213–1,220, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2005.50.4.1213.

Nagata, R.M., M.A. Haddad, and M. Nogueira Jr. 2009. The nuisance of medusae (Cnidaria, Medusozoa) to shrimp trawls in central part of southern Brazilian Bight, from the perspective of artisanal fishermen. Pan-American Journal of Aquatic Sciences 4:312–325.

Nakar, N. 2011. Economic evaluation of jellyfish effects on the fishery sector—Case study from the eastern Mediterranean. MA Dissertation, University of Haifa, 95 pp.

NMFS (National Marine Fisheries Service). 1999. Ecosystem-based Fishery Management: A Report to Congress by the Ecosystem Principles Advisory Panel. Ecosystem Principles Advisory Panel, US Department of Commerce, NOAA NMFS Office of Science and Technology, Washington, DC, 53 pp.

Paiva, V.H., P. Geraldes, V. Marques, R. Rodriguez, S. Garthe, and J.A. Ramos. 2013. Effects of environmental variability on different trophic levels of the North Atlantic food web. Marine Ecology Progress Series 477:15–28, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10180.

Palmieri, M.G., A. Barausse, T. Luisetti, and K. Turner. 2014. Jellyfish blooms in the northern Adriatic Sea: Fishermen’s perceptions and economic impacts on fisheries. Fisheries Research 155:51–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2014.02.021.

Pauly, D., W.M. Graham, S. Libralato, L. Morissette, and M.L.D. Palomares. 2009. Jellyfish in ecosystems, online databases, and ecosystem models. Hydrobiologia 616:67–85, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-008-9583-x.

Pikitch, E.K., P.D. Boersma, I.L. Boyd, D.O. Conover, P. Cury, T. Essington, S.S. Heppell, E.D. Houde, M. Mangel, D. Pauly, and others. 2012. Little Fish, Big Impact: Managing a Crucial Link in Ocean Food Webs. Lenfest Ocean Program, Washington, DC, 108 pp.

Pikitch, E.K., K.J. Rountos, T.E. Essington, C. Santora, D. Pauly, R. Watson, U.R. Sumaila, P.D. Boersma, I.L. Boyd, D.O. Conover, and others. 2014. The global contribution of forage fish to marine fisheries and ecosystems. Fish and Fisheries 15:43–64, https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12004.

Pikitch, E.K., C. Santora, E.A. Babcock, A. Bakun, R. Bonfil, D.O. Conover, P. Dayton, P. Doukakis, D. Fluharty, B. Heneman, and others. 2004. Ecosystem-based fishery management. Science 503:346–347, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1098222.

Pitois, S.G., C.P. Lynam, T. Jansen, N. Halliday, and M. Edwards. 2012. Bottom-up effects of climate on fish populations: Data from the Continuous Plankton Recorder. Marine Ecology Progress Series 456:169–186, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09710.

Pitt, K.A., C.M. Duarte, C.H. Lucas, K.R. Sutherland, R.H. Condon, H.W. Mianzan, J.E. Purcell, K.L. Robinson, and S.-i. Uye. 2013. Jellyfish body plans provide allometric advantages beyond low carbon content. PLoS ONE 8(8):e72683, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0072683.

Pitt, K.A., M.J. Kingsford, D. Rissik, and K. Koop. 2007. Jellyfish modify the response of planktonic assemblage to nutrient pulses. Marine Ecology Progress Series 351:1–13, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07298.

Postel, L., H. Fock, and W. Hagen. 2000. Biomass and abundance. Pp. 83–192 in ICES Zooplankton Methodology Manual. R. Harris, P. Wiebe, J. Lenz, H.R. Skjoldal, and M. Huntley, eds, Academic Press, San Diego, CA.

Purcell, J.E. 1985. Predation on fish eggs and larvae by pelagic cnidarians and ctenophores. Bulletin of Marine Science 37:739–755.

Purcell, J.E. 1997. Pelagic cnidarians and ctenophores as predators: Selective predation, feeding rates and effects on prey populations. Annuales de l’Institut Oceanographique 73:125–137.

Purcell, J.E. 2005. Climate effects on formation of jellyfish and ctenophore blooms: A review. Journal of the Marine Biology Association of the United Kingdom 85:461–476, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025315405011409.

Purcell, J.E. 2012. Jellyfish and ctenophore blooms coincide with human proliferations and environmental perturbations. Annual Review of Marine Science 4:209–235, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-120709-142751.

Purcell, J.E., and M.N. Arai. 2001. Interactions of pelagic cnidarians and ctenophores with fish: A review. Hydrobiologia 451:27–44, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011883905394.

Purcell, J.E., and J.J. Grover. 1990. Predation and food limitation as causes of mortality in larval herring at a spawning ground in British Columbia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 59:55–61.

Purcell, J.E., D.A. Nemazie, S.E. Dorsey, E.D. Houde, and J.C. Gamble. 1994. Predation mortality of bay anchovy Anchoa mitchilli eggs and larvae due to scyphomedusae and ctenophores in Chesapeake Bay. Marine Ecology Progress Series 114:47–58.

Purcell, J.E., and M.V. Sturdevant. 2001. Prey selection and dietary overlap among zooplanktivorous jellyfish and juvenile fishes in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Ecology Progress Series 210:67–83, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps210067.

Purcell, J.E., S.-i. Uye, and W.-T. Lo. 2007. Anthropo-genic causes of jellyfish blooms and their direct consequences for humans: A review. Marine Ecology Progress Series 350:153–174, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07093.

Purcell, J.E., J.R. White, D.A. Nemazie, and D.A. Wright. 1999. Temperature, salinity and food effects on asexual reproduction and abundance of the scyphozoan Chrysaora quinquecirrha. Marine Ecology Progress Series 180:187–196, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps180187.

Quiñones, J., A. Monroy, E.M.E. Acha, and H.W. Mianzan. 2013. Jellyfish bycatch diminishes profit in an anchovy fishery off Peru. Fisheries Research 139:47–50, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2012.04.014.

Rathbun, R. 1892. Summary of the fishery investigations conducted in the North Pacific and Bering Sea from July 1, 1888 to July 1, 1892 by the US Fish Commission Steamer Albatross by Richard Rathbun. Fishery Bulletin 12:127–202.

Reid, P.C., E.J.V. Battle, S.D. Batten, and K.M. Brander. 2000. Impacts of fisheries on plankton community structure. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57:495–502, https://doi.org/10.1006/jmsc.2000.0740.

Richardson, A.J., A. Bakun, G.C. Hays, and M.J. Gibbons. 2009. The jellyfish joyride: Causes, consequences and management responses to a more gelatinous future. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24:312–322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2009.01.010.

Riisgård, H.U., P. Andersen, and E. Hoffman. 2012. From fish to jellyfish in the eutrophicated Limfjorden (Denmark). Estuaries and Coasts 35:701–713, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-012-9480-4.

Robinson, K.L., and W.M. Graham. 2013. Long-term change in the abundances of northern Gulf of Mexico scyphomedusae Chrysaora sp. and Aurelia spp. with links to climate variability. Limnology and Oceanography 58:235–253, https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2013.58.1.0235.

Robinson, K.L., and W.M. Graham. 2014. Warming of subtropical coastal waters accelerates Mnemiopsis leidyi growth and alters timing of spring ctenophore blooms. Marine Ecology Progress Series 502:105–115, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps10739.

Roithmayr, C.M., and R.A. Waller. 1963. Seasonal occurrence of Brevoortia patronus in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 92:301–302, https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1963)92[301:SOOBPI]2.0.CO;2.

Roux, J.P., C.D. van der Lingen, M.J. Gibbons, N.E. Moroff, L.J. Shannon, A.D.M. Smith, and P.M. Cury. 2013. Jellyfication of marine ecosystems as a likely consequence of overfishing small pelagic fishes: Lessons from the Benguela. Bulletin of Marine Science 89:249–284, https://doi.org/10.5343/bms.2011.1145.

Ruzicka, J.J., R.D. Brodeur, R.L. Emmett, J.H. Steele, J.E. Zamon, C.A. Morgan, A.C. Thomas, and T.C. Wainwright. 2012. Interannual variability in the Northern California Current food web structure: Changes in energy flow pathways and the role of forage fish, euphausiids, and jellyfish. Progress in Oceanography 102:19–41, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pocean.2012.02.002.

Samhouri, J.F., P.S. Levin, and C.J. Harvey. 2009. Quantitative evaluation of marine ecosystem indicator performance using food web models. Ecosystems 12:1,283–1,298, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-009-9286-9.

Samhouri, J.F., P.S. Levin, and C.H. Ainsworth. 2010. Identifying thresholds for ecosystem-based management. PLoS ONE 5(1):e8907, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008907.

Sanchez-Rubio, G., H.M. Perry, P.M. Biesiot, D.R. Johnson, and R.N. Lipcius. 2011. Oceanic-atmospheric modes of variability and their influence on riverine input to coastal Louisiana and Mississippi. Journal of Hydrology 396:72–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2010.10.034.

Scheffer, M., S. Carpenter, J.A. Foley, C. Folke, and B. Walker. 2001. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591–596, https://doi.org/10.1038/35098000.

Schiariti, A., M. Kawahara, S. Uye, and H.W. Mianzan. 2008. Life cycle of the jellyfish Lychnorhiza lucerna (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae). Marine Biology 156:1–12, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-008-1050-8.

Smith, J.W. 2001. Distribution of catch in gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, purse seine fishery in the northern Gulf of Mexico from logbook information: Are there relationships to the hypoxic zone? Pp. 311–320 in Coastal Hypoxia: Consequences for Living Resources and Ecosystems. N. Rabalais and E.R. Turner, eds, American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC.

Steele, J.H. 2009. Assessment of some linear food web methods. Journal of Marine Systems 76:186–194, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2008.05.012.

Steele, J.H., and J.J. Ruzicka. 2011. Constructing end-to-end models using ECOPATH data. Journal of Marine Systems 87:227–238, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2011.04.005.

Suchman, C., R.D. Brodeur, E.A. Daly, and R.L. Emmett. 2012. Large medusae in surface waters of the Northern California Current: Variability in relation to environmental conditions. Hydrobiologia 690:113–125, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-012-1055-7.

Suchman, C.L., E.A. Daly, J.E. Keister, W.T. Peterson, and R.D. Brodeur. 2008. Feeding patterns and predation potential of scyphomedusae in a highly productive upwelling region. Marine Ecology Progress Series 358:161–172, https://doi.org/10.3354/meps07313.

Sweetman, A.K., and A. Chapman. 2011. First observations of jelly-falls at the seafloor in a deep-sea fjord. Deep Sea Research Part I 58:1,206–1,211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr.2011.08.006.

Takahashi, M., D.M. Checkley, M.N.C. Litz, R.D. Brodeur, and W.T. Peterson. 2012. Responses in growth rate of larval northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax) to anomalous upwelling in the northern California Current. Fisheries Oceanography 21:393–404, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2419.2012.00633.x.

Tian, Y., Y. Ueno, M. Suda, and T. Akamine. 2004. Decadal variability in the abundance of Pacific saury and its response to climatic/oceanic regime shifts in the northwestern subtropical Pacific during the last half century. Journal of Marine Systems 52:235–257, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2004.04.004.

Twatwa, N.M., C.D. van der Lingen, L. Drapeau, C.L. Moloney, and J.G. Field. 2005. Characterising and comparing the spawning habitats of anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus and sardine Sardinops sagax in the southern Benguela upwelling ecosystem. African Journal of Marine Science 27(2):487–499, https://doi.org/10.2989/18142320509504107.

Utne-Palm, A.C., A.G.V. Salvanes, B. Currie, S. Kaartvedt, G.E. Nilsson, V.A. Braithwaite, J.A.W. Stecyk, M. Hundt, M. van der Bank, B. Flynn, and others. 2010. Trophic structure and community stability in an overfished ecosystem. Science 329:333–336, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1190708.

Uye, S.-i. 2008. Blooms of the giant jellyfish Nemopilema normurai: A threat to the fisheries sustainability of East Asian Marginal Seas. Plankton and Benthos Research 3:125–131, https://doi.org/10.3800/pbr.3.125.

Uye, S.-i. 2011. Human forcing of the copepod-fish-jellyfish triangular trophic relationship. Hydrobiologia 666:71–83, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-010-0208-9.

Uye, S.-i., and H. Shimauchi. 2005. Population biomass, feeding, respiration and growth rates, and carbon budget of the scyphomedusa Aurelia aurita in the Inland Sea of Japan. Journal of Plankton Research 27:237–248, https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbh172.

Uye, S.-i., and U. Ueta. 2004. Recent increases of jellyfish populations and their nuisance to fisheries in the inland Sea of Japan. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Oceanography 68:9–19 (in Japanese with English abstract).

Vaughan, D.S., J.J. Govoni, and K.W. Shertzer. 2011. Relationship between Gulf menhaden recruitment and Mississippi River flow: Model development and potential application for management. Marine and Coastal Fisheries 3:344–352, https://doi.org/10.1080/19425120.2011.620908.

Vaughan, D.S., K.W. Shertzer, and J.W. Smith. 2007. Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico: Fishery characteristics and biological reference points for management. Fisheries Research 83:263–275, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2006.10.002.

Ward, T.M., L.J. McLeay, W.F. Dimmlich, P.J. Rogers, S.A.M. McClatchie, R. Matthews, J. Kampf, and P.D. Van Ruth. 2006. Pelagic ecology of a northern boundary current system: Effects of upwelling on the production and distribution of sardine (Sardinops sagax), anchovy (Engraulis australis) and southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) in the Great Australian Bight. Fisheries Oceanography 15:191–207, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2419.2006.00353.x.

Copyright & Usage

This is an open access article made available under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format as long as users cite the materials appropriately, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate the changes that were made to the original content. Images, animations, videos, or other third-party material used in articles are included in the Creative Commons license unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If the material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license, users will need to obtain permission directly from the license holder to reproduce the material.